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The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe.
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However, because the calendar was reformed and adjusted countless times over the centuries, the term essentially denotes a series of evolving calendar systems, whose structures are partly unknown and vary quite a bit. Also known as the Republican calendar, it is the earliest calendar system from Rome for which we have historical evidence.

The High Empire (31 BC – 305 AD)

It was used until 45 BCE , when it was replaced by the Julian calendar. The Republican calendar was derived from a line of older calendar systems whose exact design is largely unknown.

Tax in the Early Days of the Roman Repulic

It is believed that the original Roman calendar was a lunar calendar that followed the phases of the Moon. This basic structure was preserved through the centuries, which is the reason why we use months today. According to tradition, Romulus, the legendary first king of Rome, oversaw an overhaul of the Roman calendar system around BCE.

Roman Taxes | Taxation in the Roman Empire

The resulting calendar, whose structure borrowed heavily from the ancient Greek calendar system, had only 10 months, with March Martius being the first month of the year. The winter season was not assigned to any month, so the year only lasted days, with 61 days unaccounted for in the winter. Following another calendar reform, which later Roman writers attributed to Romulus' successor, Numa Pompilius, the Republican calendar was instituted.

To account for the days of winter between the years, two additional months were introduced: Ianuarius and Februarius. This meant that some of the month names no longer agreed with their position in the calendar. The Republican calendar year lasted for days, which is about 10 days shorter than a tropical year , the time it takes Earth to revolve around the Sun. To keep the calendar in sync with the seasons , a leap month called Mercedonius or Intercalaris was added in some years—normally every two to three years. By custom, the insertion of the leap month was initiated by the pontifex maximus , the high priest of the College of Pontiffs in ancient Rome.

The Roman Calendar

However, this system was vulnerable to abuse. Since the Roman calendar year defined the term of office of elected officials, a pontifex maximus was able to control the length of his term simply by adding a leap month. When Julius Caesar became pontifex maximus , he ordered a calendar reform which eliminated leap months and resulted in the implementation of the Julian calendar in 45 BCE , the direct predecessor of today's Gregorian calendar. These markers were used to number the days in each month, counting backward from the upcoming Calends , Ides , or Nones.


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