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A discussion of the impacts of climate change and the rising global temperatures on the health of populations around the world.Vector-Borne Diseases · Declining Air Quality · Extreme Weather.
Table of contents
- Global warming
- Ocean temperatures are rising faster than previously thought
- Rising Temperature
- Ocean temperatures are rising faster than previously thought | World Economic Forum
On a species level, the palatability of P. Palatability was not related to any of the measured plant traits when all species were pooled. Intraspecifically, in P. In this study, we tested the effects of water temperature on the growth, chemical plant traits and the resultant palatability of three submerged aquatic plants.
Temperature rise significantly increased plant growth, increased tissue C: nutrient ratios and there was a trend toward lower palatability, but interestingly, some of these effects were species-specific. Rising temperatures enhanced plant growth in our experiment, confirming our first hypothesis, which has also been previously observed in the laboratory Barko and Smart, ; Madsen and Brix, ; Velthuis et al.
This can also partly explain lower growth of the plants at lower temperatures in our experiment, as there was more periphyton growth at lower temperatures Figure S2. The growth of plants was probably not limited by carbon availability during the experiment, as the alkalinity was always above 1.
Global warming
In our study, the pH was above 8, which meant that the major carbon source was bicarbonate, and the species we used can all utilize bicarbonate as carbon source Pedersen et al. The plant species that we used can take up nutrients from both sediment and water Carignan and Kalff, ; Barko et al.
Nutrients were limited in the water during the experiment Figure S1 ; there were much higher amounts of nutrients available in the sediment, hence this was the main source of nutrients for plant growth. It seemed that P. That could also be the reason that E. According to optimal partitioning theory, plants allocate more biomass to the roots when the available nutrients are lower in the sediment Bloom et al. As we measured lower levels of nutrients in the sediment at higher temperatures in our experiment, and lower root:shoot ratios in E. Indeed, as temperature increased, E. Our results showed that higher temperature led to faster growth and lower nutrient availability, which in turn led to lower tissue nutrients in two of the three plant species P.
The observed shifts in nutrient content and stoichiometry follow the temperature-plant physiological hypothesis Reich and Oleksyn, , which predicts that plant N and P content declines with increasing temperatures. At higher temperatures plants invest less nutrients per carbon for their metabolism and growth Reich and Oleksyn, ; Zhang et al. This corresponds with our finding that there were lower levels of nutrients in the sediment at higher temperatures at which these plants can utilize nutrients better to accumulate biomass. We also found that there were strong negative correlations between macrophyte biomass and plant nutrient content and positive correlations between plant nutrient content and sediment porewater nutrient concentration.
This means that there was a strong effect of nutrient dilution in plant tissue by increasing total biomass. This effect was not seen in E. However, E. The tissue stoichiometry for E. This might have been caused by altered nutrient availability in the water layer at higher temperatures. Warming increases sediment respiration which probably increases the nutrient release from the sediment to the water Liboriussen et al.
These nutrients in the water could be taken up by aquatic plants, periphyton, and phytoplankton van Donk and van De Bund, There was less periphyton at higher temperatures Figure S2 ; possibly related to an increased grazing pressure by the periphyton grazing snails at higher temperatures , and more phytoplankton accumulated at higher temperatures.
All in all, the rising temperature might have affected the nutrient availability in the water, and resulted in the differential responses of tissue stoichiometry in the aquatic plants. Dry matter content has been assumed to be negatively correlated with plant nutrient content Elger and Willby, , which was true in all our three species. As temperature increased, plant nutrient content decreased, and then we can expect an increase in plant dry matter content.
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Rising temperature increased plant dry matter content in P. There was no temperature effect on the total phenolics content, which is consistent with previous research on terrestrial plants Jamieson et al. This may have been due to the low total phenolic concentrations that we measured in our plants, even in P.
Ocean temperatures are rising faster than previously thought
In the comparison among 40 aquatic plants species of Grutters et al. Hence, the total phenolic concentration may have been too low to deter snail feeding, or L. Furthermore, the correlation between N content and total phenolics concentration showed different directions in the three plant species. This may also indicate that total phenolics can at best be considered a rough indicator of plant defense in aquatic plants Gross and Bakker, , whereas there are specific phenolic compounds that determine anti-herbivore defenses Bidart-Bouzat and Imeh-Nathaniel, ; Harvey, However, the identity of these compounds is at present largely unknown in most freshwater plants.
Because we observed the hypothesized changes in plant growth and in plant nutrient content and stoichiometry in two of our three tested plant species, we also expected that plant palatability would be reduced with increasing temperature. Indeed, aquatic plant palatability showed a decreasing trend as temperature increased, but this was at the species level, only significant in P. Also other studies which used different species found that warming either decreased marine plant palatability Rodil et al.
Therefore, we conclude that the effect of warming on plant palatability is to a certain extent species-specific, in our study depending on the plant species identity. In analogy, variation in the palatability of seaweeds across latitudes was recently found to vary with both plant and herbivore identity Demko et al. Here, it should be noted that we measured a plastic response of plants to temperature within a generation, whereas latitudinal gradients in plant traits and palatability are the result of selection pressures operating over generations. Similarly, the measured responses are short-term, whereas alterations in plant traits in response to climate change, including global warming, would be a slow process operating over generations.
Overall, in our study, plant palatability was significantly negatively correlated with plant dry matter content, C:nutrient ratio and total phenolics, and positively correlated with plant nutrient N and P content and N:Phenolics ratio in P. Hence, all hypothesized relationships between plant traits and palatability, based on the literature, were true for P. However, P.
Rising Temperature
Across a wide range of aquatic plant species palatability increases with decreasing dry matter content Elger and Willby, ; Elger and Lemoine, , and increasing N:phenolics ratio Grutters et al. Possibly, the measured plant traits might be better in predicting plant palatability on an interspecies level, instead of intraspecifically. The plant species tested differed strongly in resource uptake and growth, which may give some species competitive advantages over other species in warming ecosystems. Consequently, warming might alter the aquatic plant community composition McKee et al.
Similarly, under current global warming trends, the stoichiometric mismatch with higher trophic levels may enlarge with an increasing carbon:nutrient ratio in some plant species. As a consequence, the palatability difference between plant species may change, which may lead to a different pressure from herbivores on some species as compared to others, which may also change the aquatic plant community composition and abundance Schiel et al. Water temperature can affect aquatic plant-herbivore interactions in aquatic ecosystems by 1 affecting plant palatability or 2 affecting grazing rate of ectothermic animals O'Connor, As ectotherm animals ingest more food with increasing temperatures Zhang et al.
However, our data show that aquatic plant palatability and stoichiometry decrease in some species with rising temperature, suggesting that plant quality may decrease with increasing temperatures. The question is whether plants remain a viable food source to sustain the ectotherm consumer population. Our study demonstrates the need to explore the effects of temperature on aquatic plant-consumer interactions at an ecosystem level. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Adams, J. A test of the latitudinal defense hypothesis: herbivory, tannins and total phenolics in four North American tree species. Alsterberg, C. Functioning of a shallow-water sediment system during experimental warming and nutrient enrichment. Backhaus, S. Warming and drought do not influence the palatability of Quercus pubescens Willd.
Arthropod Plant Interact. Bakker, E. Herbivory on freshwater and marine macrophytes: a review and perspective. Barko, J. Environmental factors and their consideration in the management of submersed aquatic vegetation: a review. Plant Manage. Google Scholar. Growth and morphology of submersed freshwater macrophytes in relation to light and temperature. Comparative influences of light and temperature on the growth and metabolism of selected submersed freshwater macrophytes.
Bidart-Bouzat, M. Global change effects on plant chemical defenses against insect herbivores.
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Ocean temperatures are rising faster than previously thought | World Economic Forum
Resistance to herbivory of two populations of Elodea canadensis Michaux and Elodea nuttallii Planchon St. Plant Ecol. Bolser, R. Are tropical plants better defended? Palatability and defenses of temperate vs. Ecology 77, — Burnham, K.