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Table of contents
You probably know someone who you think has low self- esteem. Your intuitions are probably based on what the person says and the things the person does. Psychologists also rely on these cues to measure self-esteem Demo, Self-Report Measures of Self-Esteem The Rosenberg self-esteem scale is one of the most widely used instruments for measuring self-esteem in research settings.
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This scale, which is shown in Table 8. Then, add up your scores across the 10 items. Your total score should fall between 0 and Higher numbers indicate higher self-esteem. Source: Rosenberg, , Society and the adolescent self-image. Table 8. This scale is often used as a measure of global self-esteem, but it actually measures how comfortable and competent a person feels in social situations. A person can be uncomfortable in social situations and still like himself in general.
Alternatively, a person can be relaxed and outgoing with others but not like herself in general. For this reason, the Rosenberg scale is the appropriate one to use for measuring global self-esteem. The Texas Social Behavior Inventory 1. I am not likely to speak to people until they speak to me 2. I would describe myself as self-confident.
I feel confident of my appearance. I am a good mixer. When in a group of people, I have trouble thinking of the right things to say.
When in a group of people, I usually do what the others want rather than make my own suggestions. I would describe myself as one who attempts to master situations 9. Other people look up to me. I enjoy social gatherings just to be with people. I make a point of looking other people in the eye. I cannot seem to get others to notice me. I would rather not have much responsibility for other people I feel comfortable being approached by someone in a position of authority over me.
I would describe myself as indecisive. I have no doubts about my social competence. Then, add up your scores for the 16 items.
Harter has developed a similar scale for children, with subscales assessing perceived scholastic competence, athletic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance, and behavioral conduct. Scales of this type focus on the second meaning of self-esteem we discussed earlier: They assume that people have different self-esteem levels for different attributes, situations, and activities.
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Typically, these scales also include a separate subscale to measure global self-esteem. For example, Baumeister, Tice, and Hutton have argued that scores on self-report measures of self-esteem are compromised by self-presentational concerns. Rather than rating how they really feel about themselves, people may distort their responses to create a particular impression in the minds of other people.
These self-presentational patterns are assumed to be imperfectly correlated with how people privately feel about themselves. Defensive processes also influence self-report measures of self-esteem Weinberger, ; Westen b. People who score high on self-report measures of self-esteem may be fooling themselves by defensively claiming to feel better about themselves than they really do. We will look at this issue more closely in Chapter Greenwald and Banaji have suggested adapting methods from cognitive psychology to overcome these potential limitations of self-report measures.
These indirect or implicit measures of self-esteem e.
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Although such measures have yet to be developed, it is likely that they will be available in the years to come. What aspects make up high self-esteem? And where does high self-esteem come from? Several different models have been developed to address these questions. Affective Models of Self-Esteem 1. Two Components of Self-Esteem page 9 of 54 Affective models of self-esteem assume that self-esteem develops at an early age and is characterized by two types of feelings. One of these feelings which we will call feelings of belonging is rooted in social experiences; the other which we will call feelings of mastery is somewhat more personal in nature.
Belonging is the feeling that one is unconditionally loved and valued, not for any particular quality or reason but simply for who one is.
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A sense of belonging gives people a secure base in life. It gives them the feeling that no matter what happens, they are valued and respected. Feelings of belonging are a bit different than reflected appraisals. As discussed in Chapter 3, reflected appraisals represent our conscious perception of how we are viewed by others. Feelings of belonging do not occur at a conscious level. They are more intuitive. Belonging is the feeling that we are loved and the security that feeling brings.
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The second important aspect of self-esteem is a sense of mastery. Mastery is not the same as perceived competence. Rather, mastery is the feeling we get when we are immersed in an activity or are striving to overcome some obstacle e. One way to convey the difference between mastery and perceived competence is to consider a child who is making mud pies. These feelings promote high self-esteem.
The affective model maintains that only the former is relevant to the genesis of self-esteem. The Development of Self-Esteem Affective models of self-esteem assume that feelings of belonging and mastery normally develop early in life. According to Erikson, the first developmental task infants face is establishing feelings of trust with their caregivers. These feelings of trust, which are thought to develop during the first year of life, correspond to the feelings of belonging we have said are integral to a sense of high self-esteem.
This stage involves the development of feelings of mastery. Attachment Bonds and Self-Esteem 3.
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This relationship also plays a central role in other theories of self-esteem development e. Bowlby was interested in understanding the basis and functions of attachment bonds. He noted that in humans, as well as in other animals, infants bond with their caregivers particularly with their mothers. What function do these mother—child bonds serve? Bowlby surmised that the attachment relationship serves a paradoxical function. By becoming securely attached, the child feels safe enough to leave the mother and explore the environment.
In this sense, Bowlby believed that a feeling of belonging i. When individuals of any age are feeling secure they are likely to explore away from their attachment figure. When alarmed, anxious, tired, or unwell they feel an urge toward proximity. Thus, we see the typical pattern of interaction between child and parent known as exploration from a secure base.
Provided the parent is known to be accessible and will be responsive when called upon, a healthy child feels secure enough to explore. Bowlby, , p. In this situation, a young child typically around 14 months of age is brought into a psychological laboratory with his or her mother. The room contains a number of interesting toys and objects that most children enjoy looking at and playing with.
The extent to which the child initially explores the objects in the room is one variable of interest. Another variable of interest is how the child reacts to separation from the mother. After being together for a few minutes, the mother unexpectedly leaves the child alone with a stranger. In this manner, the strange situation measures the extent to which a child uses the mother as a secure base from which to explore the environment and as a source of comfort in times of stress. In studies using this procedure, three different attachment styles have been identified.
Securely attached infants show a healthy balance between closeness to the mother and independence. During the first phase of the procedure, they readily separate to explore the environment. Although they may be distressed when their mother leaves, they are eager to see her when she returns and enjoy drawing her into their play and sharing their discoveries with her.