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Table of contents
- Advances in Computers: Improving the Web
- List of emerging technologies
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For example, at the workshop, Bruce Tognazzini's "Starfire" video showed a. Gesture can relieve problems of repetitive stress by varying the user's movements, thereby lowering the repetition of any particular action. Symbolic gestures are conventional, context-independent, and typically unambiguous expressions e. In contrast, deictic gestures are pointers to entities, analogous to natural language deixis e. Iconic gestures are used to display objects, spatial relations, and actions e. Finally, pantomimic gestures display an invisible object or tool e. Gestural languages exist as well. These include sign languages and signing systems for use in environments where alternative communication is difficult.
Early experience with glove interfaces indicates that some users have difficulty remembering the gesture equivalents to commands Herndon et al. Gesture recognition plays a role in immersive environments such as the virtual reality or simulation environments. It also should find widespread application in helping to give directions to computers or computerized agents. Pointing and gesturing with the hand or with other objects are natural communication behaviors and will likely form an important component in a natural intuitive interface.
In addition, for individuals who are deaf and who communicate primarily through gestural languages such as American Sign Language , machine recognition of American Sign Language gestures is the equivalent of speech recognition for those of us who can speak. Machine vision is likely to play a number of roles in future interface systems. Primary roles are likely to be:.
Experience with text and image recognition provides a number of insights relevant to future interface development, especially in the context of aiding individuals with physical disabilities. In particular, systems that are difficult to use by blind people would pose the same problems to. Similar problems may arise as well for intelligent agents. Optical character recognition OCR is quite good and is improving daily.
Driven by a desire to turn warehouses of printed documents into electronic searchable form, companies have been and are making steady advances. Some OCR programs will convert programs into electronic text that is compatible with particular word processing packages, preserving the text layout, emphasis, font, and so on. The problem with OCR is that it is not percent accurate. When it makes a mistake, however, it is not usually a character anymore since word lookup is used to improve accuracy. As a result, when an error is made, it is often a legal but wrong word.
Thus, it is often impossible to look at a document and figure out exactly what it did say-some sentences may not be accurate or even make sense. One company gets around this by pasting a picture of any words the system is not sure about into the text where the unknown word would go. This works well for sighted persons, allows human editors to easily fix the mistakes, and preserves the image for later processing by a more powerful image recognizer. It does not help blind users much except that they are not misled by a wrong word and can ask a sighted person for help if they cannot figure something out.
Most helpful would be to have an OCR system include its guess as to the letters of a word in question as hidden text, which a person who is blind could call up to assist in guessing the word. Highly stylized or embellished characters or words are not recognizable. Text that is wrapped around, tied in knots, or arranged on the page or laid out in an unusual way may be difficult to interpret even if available in electronic text.
Advances in Computers: Improving the Web
This is a separate problem from image recognition, though. Despite great strides by the military, weather, intelligence, and other communities, image interpretation remains quite specialized and focused on looking for particular features. The ability to identify and describe arbitrary images is still beyond us. However, advances in artificial intelligence, neural networks, and image processing in combination with large data banks of image information may make it possible in the future to provide verbal interpretation or description for many types of information. A major impetus comes from the desire to make image information.
The combination of a tactile representation with feature or texture information presented aurally may provide the best early access to graphic information by users who are blind or cannot use their sight. Some images, such as pie charts and line graphs, can be recognized easily and turned into raw data or a text description. Standard software has been available for some time that will take a scanned image of a chart and provide a spreadsheet of the data represented in the chart. Other images, such as electronic schematic diagrams, could be recognized but are difficult to describe.
List of emerging technologies
A house plan illustrates the kind of diagram that may be describable in general terms and would benefit from combining a verbal description with a tactile representation for those who cannot see to deal with this type of information. Visual display progress begins with the screen design graphics, layouts, icons, metaphors, widget sets, animation, color, fisheye views, overviews, zooming and other aspects of how information is visualized.
The human eye can see far more than current computer displays can show. The bandwidth of our visual channel is many orders of magnitude greater than other senses: It has a dynamic range of 10 13 to 1 10 trillion to 1. No human-made sensor or graphics display has this dynamic range.
The eye has a very focused view that is optimized for perceiving movement. State-of-the-art visualization systems as of can create images of approximately 4, polygons complexity at 50 Hz per eye. Modern graphics engines also filter the image to remove sampling artifacts on polygon edges and, more importantly, textures.
Partial transparency is also possible, which allows fog and atmospheric contrast attenuation in a natural-looking way. Occlusion called "hidden surface removal" in graphics is provided, as is perspective transformation of vertices. Smooth shading in hardware is also common now. Typical computer-aided design constructions or animated graphics for television commercials involve scenes with millions of polygons; these are not rendered in real time. Thus, the imagery used in real-time systems is portrayed at rather less than optimal resolution,. In addition, there are better ways of rendering scenes, as when the physics of light is more accurately simulated, but these techniques are not currently achievable in real time.
A six-order-of-magnitude increase in computer speed and graphics generation would be easy to absorb; a teraflop personal computer would be rather desirable, therefore, but is probably 10 years off. The computer industry provides a range of display devices, from small embedded liquid-crystal displays LCDs in personal digital assistants PDAs and navigational devices to large cathode-ray tubes CRTs and projectors.
Clearly, desirable goals are lower cost, power consumption, latency, weight, and both much larger and much smaller screens. Durability could be improved, especially for portable units. Hollywood and science fiction have described most of the conceivable, highly futuristic display devices-direct retinal projection, direct cerebral input, Holodecks, and so on. Less futuristic displays still have a long way to go to enable natural-appearing virtual reality VR.
Liquid crystal displays do not have the resolution and low weight needed for acceptable head-mounted displays to be built; users of currently available head-mounted displays are effectively legally blind given the lack of acuity offered. Projected VR displays are usable, although they are large and are not portable.
Once these barriers are overcome, VR will be open for wider application. High-resolution visual input devices are becoming available to nonprofessionals, allowing them to produce their own visual content. Digital snapshot cameras and scanners, for example, have become available at high-end consumer levels. These devices, while costly, are reasonable in quality and are a great aid to people creating visual materials for the NII. Similarly, two-dimensional illustration and three-dimensional animation software make extraordinary graphics achievable by the motivated and talented citizen.
The cost of such software will continue to come down as the market widens, and the availability of more memory, processing, graphics power, and disk space will make results more achievable and usable. As a future goal that defines a conceptual outer limit for input and output, one might choose the Holodeck from the movie Star Trek , a device that apparently stores and replays the molecular reconstruction information from the transporter that beams people up and down.
The ear collects sound waves and encodes the spatial characteristics of the sound source into temporal and spectral attributes. The ear gets information from the whole space via movement in time. Hearing individual components of sound requires frequency identification. The ear acts such as a series of narrowly tuned filters.
Sound cues can be used to catch attention with localization, indicate near or far positions with reverberation, indicate collisions and other events, and even portray abstract events such as change over time. Low-frequency sound can vibrate the user's body to somewhat simulate physical displacement. Speakers and headphones as output devices for synthesized sound match the ears well, unlike the case with visual displays. However, understanding which sounds to create as part of the human-computer interface is much less well understood than for the visual case.
About 50 million instructions per second are required for each synthesized sound source. Computing reverberation off six surfaces for four sound sources might easily require a billion-instruction-per-second computer,. Audio sampling and playback are far simpler and are most often used for primitive cues such as beacons and alarms. Thus, the barriers to good matching to human hearing have to do with computing the right sound and getting it to each ear in a properly weighted way. Although in many ways producing sound by computer is simpler than displaying imagery, many orders of magnitude more research and development have been devoted to graphics than sound synthesis.
Human touch is achieved by the parallel operation of many sensor systems in the body Kandel and Schwartz, The hand alone has 19 bones, 19 joints, and 20 muscles with 22 degrees of freedom and many classes of receptors and nerve endings in the joints, skin, tendons, and muscles. The hand can squeeze, stroke, grasp, and press; it can also feel texture, shape, softness, and temperature. The fingerpad has hairless ridged skin enclosing soft tissues made of fat in a semiliquid state. Fingers can glide over a surface without losing contact or grab an object to manipulate it. Computed output and input of human touch called "haptics" is currently very primitive compared to graphics and sound.
Haptic tasks are of two types: Exploration involves the extraction of object properties such as shape and surface texture, mass, and solidity. Manipulation concerns modification of the environment, from watch repair to using a sledge hammer. Joint rotations of a fraction of a degree can be perceived. Other nerve endings signal skin temperature, mechanical and thermal pain, chemical pain, and itch. Responses range from fast spinal reflex to slow deliberate conscious action.
Experiments on lifting objects show that slipping is counteracted in 70 milliseconds. Humans can perceive a 2-micrometer-high single dot on a glass plate, a 6-micrometer-high grating, using different types of receptors Kalawsky, Tactile and kinesthetic perception extends into the kilohertz range Shimoga, Tactile interfaces aim to reproduce sensations arising from contact with textures and edges but do not support the ability to modify the underlying model.
Haptic interfaces are high-performance mechanical devices that support bidirectional input and output of displacement and forces. They measure positions, contact forces, and time derivatives and output new forces and positions Burdea, Output to the skin can be point,.
Consider David Warner, who makes his rounds in a ''cyberwear" buzz suit that captures information from his patients' monitors, communicating it with bar charts tingling his arms, pulse rates sent down to his fingertips, and test results whispered in his ears, yet allowing him to maintain critical eye contact with his patients http: There are many parallels and differences between haptics and visual computer graphics interfaces. The history of computing technology over the past 30 to 40 years is dominated by the exponential growth in computing power enabled by semiconductor technology.
Most of this new computing power has supported enriched high-bandwidth user interfaces. The computer model both delivers information to the human and is modified by the human during the haptic interaction. Another way to look at this difference is to note that, unlike graphics or audio output, physical energy flows in both directions between the user and the computer through a haptic display device. In three distinct market segments emerged for haptic technology: The lesson of video games has been to optimize for real-time feedback and feel.
The joysticks or other interfaces for video games are very carefully handled so that they feel continuous. The obviously cheap joystick on the Nintendo 64 game is very smooth, such that a 2 year old has no problem with it. Such smoothness is necessary to be a good extension of a person's hand motion, since halting response changes the dynamics, causing one to overcompensate, slow down, etc. It is currently supported by about 10 video game software vendors. Other joystick vendors are readying haptic feedback joysticks for this low-priced, high-volume market.
Haptic interaction will play a major role in all simulation-based training involving manual skill Buttolo et al. For example, force feedback devices for surgical training are already in the initial stages of commercialization by such companies as Boston Dynamics Cambridge, Mass. McNeely, and Ford Buttolo et al. These are the first signs of a new and broad-based high-technology industry with great potential for U. Research as discussed below is necessary to foster and accelerate the development of these and other emerging areas into full-fledged industries.
A number of science and technology issues arise in the haptics and tactile display arena. Haptics is attracting the attention of a growing number of researchers because of the many fascinating problems that must be solved to realize the vision of a rich set of haptic-enabled applications.
Because haptic interaction intimately involves high-performance computing, advanced mechanical engineering, and human psychophysics and biomechanics, there are pressing needs for interdisciplinary collaborations as well as basic disciplinary advances. These key areas include the following:. Better understanding of the biomechanics of human interaction with haptic displays. For example, stability of the haptic interaction goes beyond the traditional control analysis to include simulated geometry and nonlinear time-varying properties of human biomechanics.
Although many ideas can be adapted from computer graphics, haptic devices require at least 1,Hz update rates and a latency of no more than 1 millisecond for stability and performance. Thus, the bar is raised for the definition of "real-time" performance for algorithms such as collision detection, shading, and dynamic multibody simulation. Advanced design of mechanisms for haptic interactions. Real haptic interaction uses all of the degrees of freedom of the human hand and arm as many as 29; see above. To provide high-quality haptic interaction over many degrees of freedom will continuously create many research challenges in mechanism design, actuator design, and control over many years to come.
Some of the applications of haptics that are practical today may seem arcane and specialized. This was also true for the first applications of computer graphics in the s. Emerging applications today are the ones with the most urgent need for haptic interaction. Below are some examples of what may become possible:. A medical student is practicing the administration of spinal epidural anesthesia for the first time.
She must insert the needle by feel. Like all physicians trained before this year, her instructor learned the procedure on actual human patients. Now, she is using a haptic display device hidden inside a plastic model of the human back. The device simulates the distinct feel of each of these tissues as well as the hard bones that she must avoid with the needle. After a few sessions with the simulator and a quantitative evaluation of her physical proficiency, she graduates to her first real patient with confidence and skill.
An automotive design engineer wants to verify that an oil filter that he knows will require routine maintenance can be removed from a crowded engine compartment without disassembly of the radiator, transmission, and so forth. He brings the complete engine compartment model up on the graphics screen and clicks the oil filter to link it to the six-axis haptic display device on his desk next to the workstation. Holding the haptic device, he removes the oil filter, feeling collisions with nearby engine objects. He finds that the filter cannot be removed because coolant hoses block the way.
The engine compartment is thus redesigned early in the design process, saving hundreds of thousands of dollars. The first of these examples is technically possible today; the second is not. There are critical computational and mechatronic challenges that will be crucial to successful implementation of ever-more realistic haptic interfaces. Because haptics is such a basic human interaction mode for so many activities, there is little doubt that, as the technology matures, new and unforeseen applications and a substantial new industry will develop to give people the ability to physically interact with computational models.
Once user interfaces are as responsive as musical instruments, for example, virtuosity is more achievable. The consumer will do more of the latter, of course. Better feedback continuously delivered appears to take less prediction. Research is necessary now to provide the intellectual capital upon that such an industry can be based. Tactile displays can help add realism to multisensory virtual reality environments. For people who are blind, however, tactile displays are. For people who are deaf and blind and who cannot use auditory displays or synthetic speech, it is the principal display form.
Vibration has been used for adding realism to movies and virtual reality environments and also as a signaling technique for people with hearing impairments. It can be used for alarm clocks or doorbells, but is limited in the information it can present even when different frequencies are used for different signals. Vibration can also be used effectively in combination with other tactile displays to provide supplemental information.
For example, vibratory information can be used in combination with Braille to indicate text that is highlighted, italicized, or underlined, or to indicate text that is a hyperlink on a hypertext page. Vibrotactile displays provide a higher-bandwidth channel. With a vibrotactile display, small pins are vibrated up and down to stimulate tactile sensors. The tactile array is usually used in conjunction with a small handheld camera but can also be connected directly to a computer to provide a tactile image around a mouse or other pointing device on the screen.
Electrocutaneous displays have also been explored as a way to create solid-state tactile arrays. Arrays have been constructed for use on the abdomen, back, forearm, and, most recently, the fingertip. Resolution for these displays is much lower than for vibrotactile displays. Raised-line drawings have long been "king of the hill" for displaying of tactile information.
The principal problem has been an inexpensive and fast way to generate them "on the fly. For lower resolution, there is a paper onto which one can photocopy and then process with heat, to cause it to swell wherever there are black lines although at a much lower resolution. Printers that create embossed Braille pages can also be programmed to create tactile images that consist of raised dots. The resolution of these is lower still the best having a resolution of about 12 dots per inch , but the raised-dot form of the graphics actually has some advantages for tactile perception.
Braille is a system for representing alphanumeric characters tactiley. The system consists of six dots in a two wide by three high pattern. Braille is most commonly thought of as being printed or embossed, where paper is punched upward to form Braille cells or characters as raised dots on the page. A few cell displays have been developed, but they are quite expensive and large. By raising or lowering the pins, a line of Braille can be dynamically changed, rather like a single line of text.
Because of the difficulties creating full-page tactile displays, a number of people have tried techniques to create a "virtual" full-page display. One example was the Systems 3 prototype, where an Optacon tactile array was placed on a mouse-like puck on a graphics tablet.
As the person moved the puck around on the tablet, he or she felt a vibrating image of the screen that corresponded to that location on the tablet. The same technique has been tried with a dynamic Braille display. The resolution, of course, is much lower. In neither case did the tactile recognition approach that of raised lines. Some attempts have been made to create full-page Braille-resolution displays. The greatest difficulty has been in trying to create something with that many moving parts that is still reliable and inexpensive.
More recently, some interesting strategies using ferro-electric liquids and other materials have been tried. In each case the objective was to create a system that involves the minimum number of moving parts and yet provides a very high-resolution tactile display. A dream of the blindness community has been the development of a large plate of hard material that would provide a high-resolution solid-state tactile display. It would be addressable like a liquid-crystal display, with instant response, very high resolution, and variable height.
It would be low cost, lightweight, and rugged. Finally, it would be best if it could easily track the position of fingers on the display, so that the tactile display could be easily coupled with voice and other audio to allow parallel presentation of tactile and auditory information for the area of the display currently being touched. An even better solution, both for blind people and for virtual reality applications, would be a glove that somehow provided both full tactile sensation over the palm and fingertips and force feedback.
Elements of this have been demonstrated, but nothing approaching full tactile sensation or any free-field force feedback. Filling out the range of technologies for people to communicate with systems-filling in the research and development gaps in the preceding. Integration of these technologies into systems that use multiple communications modalities simultaneously-multimodal systems-can improve people's performance. These ideas are discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.
Virtual reality involves the integration of multiple input and output technologies into an immersive experience that, ideally, will permit people to interact with systems as naturally as they do with real-world places and objects. People effortlessly integrate information gathered across modalities during conversational interactions. Facial cues and gestures are combined with speech and situational cues, such as objects and events in the environment, to communicate meaning. Almost years of research in experimental psychology attests to our remarkable abilities to bring all knowledge to bear during human communication.
The ability to integrate information across modalities is essential for accurate and robust comprehension of language by machines and to enable machines to communicate effectively with people. In noisy environments, when speech is difficult to understand, facial cues provide both redundant and complementary information that dramatically improves recognition performance over either modality alone. To improve recognition in noisy environments, researchers must discover effective procedures to recognize and combine speech and facial cues.
Similarly, textual information may be transmitted more effectively under some conditions by turning the text into natural-sounding speech, produced by an animated "talking head" with appropriate facial movements. While a great deal of excellent research is being undertaken in the laboratory, research in this area has not yet reached the stage where commercial applications have appeared, and fundamental problems remain to be solved. In particular, basic research is needed into the science of understanding how humans use multiple modalities.
Standard mass-market products are still largely designed with single interfaces e. There are systems designed to work with keyboard or mouse, and some cross-modality efforts. Usually, though, these multiple input systems are accomplished by having a second input technique simulate input on the first-for example, having the speech interface create simulated keystrokes or mouse clicks rather than having the systems designed from the beginning to accommodate alternate interface modalities.
This approach is usually the result of companies that decide to add voice or pen support or other input technique support to their applications after it has been architected. This generates both compatibility problems and very complicated user configuration and programming problems. A similar problem exists with media, materials, databases, or educational programs designed to be used in a visual-only presentation format.
Companies and users run into problems when the materials need to be presented aurally. For example, systems designed for visual viewing often need to be reengineered if the data are going to be presented over a phone-based information system. The area where the greatest cross-modality interface research has been carried out has been the disability access area.
Strategies for creating audiovisual materials that also include time-synchronized text e. Interestingly, although closed captioning was added to television sets for people who are deaf, it is used much more in noisy bars, by people learning to read a new language, by children, and by people who have muted their television sets. The captions are also useful for institutions wishing to index or search audiovisual files, and they allow "agent" software to comprehend and work with the audio materials. In the area of public information systems, such as public kiosks, interfaces are now being developed that are flexible enough to accommodate individuals with an extremely wide range of type, degree, and combination of disabilities.
These systems are set up so that the standard touchscreen interface supports variations that allow individuals with different disabilities to use them. Extremely wide variation in human sensory motor abilities can be accommodated without changing the user interface for people without disabilities. For example, by providing a "touch and hear" feature, a kiosk can be made usable by individuals who cannot read or by those who have low vision. Holding down a switch would cause the touchscreen to become inactive e.
However, any buttons or text that were touched would be read aloud to the user. Releasing the switch would reactivate the screen. A "touch and confirm" mode would allow individuals with moderate to severe physical disabilities to use the kiosk by having it accept only input that is. An option that provides a listing of the items e. The use of captions for audiovisual materials on kiosks can allow individuals who have hearing impairments to access a kiosk as well as anyone else trying to use a kiosk in a noisy mall. Finally, by sending the information on the pop-up list out through the computer's Infrared Data Association IrDA port, it is possible for individuals who are completely paralyzed or deaf and blind to access and use a kiosk via their personal assistive technologies.
All of these features can be added to a standard multimedia touchscreen kiosk without adding any hardware beyond a single switch and without altering the interface experienced by individuals who do not have disabilities. By adding interface enhancements such as these, it is possible to create a single public kiosk that looks and operates like any traditional touchscreen kiosk but is also accessible and usable by individuals who cannot read, who have low vision, who are blind, who are hearing impaired, who are deaf, who have physical disabilities, who are paralyzed, or who are deaf and blind.
Kiosks with flexible user-configurable interfaces have been distributed in Minnesota including the Mall of America , Washington State, and other states. These and similar techniques have been implemented in other environments as well. Since the s, Apple Computer has had options built into its human interface to make it more useful to people with functional limitations look in any Macintosh control panel for Easy Access.
Windows 95 has over a dozen adjustments and variations built into its human interface to allow it to be used by individuals with a very wide range of disabilities or environmental limitations, including those with difficulty hearing, seeing, physically operating a keyboard, and operating a mouse from the keyboard. As we move into more immersive environments and environments that are utilizing a greater percentage of an individual's different sensory and motor systems simultaneously e.
In the techniques developed to date, however, building interfaces that allow for cross-modality interaction have generally made for more robust and flexible interfaces and systems that can better adapt to new interface technologies as they emerge e. The past 10 years has brought nearly a complete changeover from command line to WIMP interfaces as the dominant every-citizen's connection to computation.
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This happened because hardware memory, display chips became cheap enough to be engineered into every product. However, the NII implies a complex of technologies relevant to far more than office work, which is a practical reason not to expect it to be accessed by every citizen with mice and windows interfaces alone van Dam, The virtual shopping mall or museum is the next likely application metaphor; the parking lots will be unneeded, of course, as will attention to the laws of physics when inappropriate, but as in three-dimensional user interfaces generally, the metaphor can help in teaching users how to operate in a synthetic environment.
Such a metaphor helps also to avoid the constraints that may derive from metaphors linked to one class of activity e. At SIGGRAPH 96, the major conference for computer graphics and interactive techniques, full-quality, real-time, interactive, three-dimensional, textured flight simulation was presented as the next desirable feature in every product. Visual representations of users, known as avatars, are one trend that has been recognized in the popular press. Typing is not usually required or desirable. The world portrayed is spatially three dimensional and it continues way beyond the boundaries of the display device.
In this context, input and output devices with more than 2 degrees of freedom are being developed to support true direct manipulation of objects, as opposed to the indirect control provided by two- and three-dimensional widgets, and user interfaces appear to require support for many degrees of freedom, 21 higher-bandwidth input and output, real-time response, continuous response and feedback, probabalistic input, and multiple simultaneous input and output streams from multiple users Herndon et al.
Note that virtual reality also expands on the challenges posed by speech synthesis to include synthesis of arbitrary sounds, a problem. Economic factors will pace the broader accessibility of technologies that are currently priced out of the reach of every citizen, such as high-end virtual reality. Virtual reality technology, deriving from 30 years of government and industry funding, will see its cost plummet as development is amortized over millions of chip sets, allowing it to come into the mainstream. Initially, the software for these new chips will be crafted and optimized by legions of video game programmers driven by teenage mass-market consumption of the best play and graphics attainable.
Coupled with the development of relatively cheap wide-angle immersive displays and hundredfold increases in computing power, personal access to data will come through navigation of complex artificial spaces. However, providing the every-citizen interface to this shared information infrastructure will need some help on the design front. Very little cognitive neuroscience and perceptual physiology is understood, much less applied, by human interface developers.
The Decade of the Brain is well into its second half now; a flood of information will be available to alert practitioners in the computing community that will be of great use in designing the every-citizen interface. Teams of sensory psychologists, industrial designers, electrical engineers, computer scientists, and marketing experts need to explore, together, the needs of governance, commerce, education, and entertainment.
The neuroplasticity of children's cognitive development when they are computationally immersed early in life is barely acknowledged, much less understood. Enumerate and prioritize human capabilities to modulate energy. This requires a comprehensive compilation of published bioengineering and medical research on human performance measurement techniques, filtering for the instrumentation modalities that the human subjects can use to willfully generate continuous or binary output. Note that much is known about human input capacity, by contrast.
Develop navigational techniques, etc. This is akin to understanding the functional transitions in moving around in the WIMP desktop metaphor and is critical to nontrivial exploitation of the shopping mall metaphor of VR. Note that directional surround-sound. Schematic means need to be developed to display the shopping mall metaphor on conventional desktop computers, small video projectors, and embedded displays.
Both software and hardware need to be provided in a form that allows ''plug and play. Despite the easily available technology in chip form, it is still clumsy if not impossible for an ordinary user to make and edit a video recording to document a computer session, unless it is a video game! Imagine text editing if you could only cut and paste but never store the results.
Connect to remote computations and data sources. This is inevitable and will be driven by every sector of computing and Web usage. Understand the computer as an instrument. This is inevitable and will be market-driven as customers become more exposed to good interfaces. Note that the competition between Web browser companies is not about megahertz and memory size! Create audio output matched to the dynamic range of human hearing.
Digital sound synthesis is in its infancy. Given the speed of currently available high-end microprocessors, this is almost entirely a software tools problem from the engineering side and a training problem from the creative side. Note that flawless voice recognition is left out here! Eliminate typing as a required input technique. Possible solutions are wearable chord keyboards, voice recognition, and gesture recognition.
Issues include whether training will be essential, ranging from the effort needed to learn a video game or new word processor to that required to play a musical instrument or to drive a bulldozer. Reduce reliance on reading. Road signs have been highly developed and standardized to reduce the reliance on reading for navigation in the real world.
The controversy here may stem from the copyright if not patent protection asserted by commercial developers on each new wrinkle of look and feel on computer screens. A fine role for government here is to encourage public domain development of the symbolism needed to navigate complex multidimensional spaces. Safe force-feedback devices capable of delivering fine touch sensations under computer control are still largely a dream. Keyboards and mice injure without the help of force feedback; devices capable of providing substantial feedback could do real injury.
Some heavy earth-moving equipment designs are now "fly-by-wire"; force feedback is being simulated to give the operator the feel once transmitted by mechanical linkage. The barriers are providing fail-safe mechanisms, finding the applications warranting force feedback, and providing the software and hardware that are up to the task. LCD screen sizes and resolutions seem to be driven by market needs for laptop computers. Twenty-twenty vision is roughly 5, pixels at a 90 degree angle of view ; less is needed at the angle people normally view television or workstation screens, more for wide-angle VR applications.
A magazine advertisement is typically equivalent to 8, pixels across, on average, which is what a mature industry provides and is paid for, a suggested benchmark for the next decade or so. More resolution can be used to facilitate simple panning which is what a person does when reading the Wall Street Journal , for example or zooming in as a person does when looking closely at a real item with a magnifying glass , both of which can be digitally realized with processing and.
Certain quality enhancements may be achieved with higher refresh rates e. Low latency, not currently a feature of LCD displays, is needed for Hz or greater devices. Micromirror projectors show promise in this area. Multiple projectors tiled together may achieve such an effect Woodward, where warranted; monitors and LCD screens do not lend themselves to tiling because the borders around the individual displays do not allow seamless configurations.
Truly borderless flat displays are clearly desirable as a way to build truly high-resolution displays. Providing enough computer for the ECI. This is probably the least of the problems because the microprocessor industry, having nearly achieved the capability of vintage Crays in single chips, is now ganging them together by fours and eights into packages.
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Gigaflop personal computers are close; teraflop desktop units are clearly on the horizon as massive parallelism becomes understood. Taking advantage of all this power is the challenge and will drive the cost down through mass production as the interfaces make the power accessible and desirable. More futuristic goals such as the petaflop computer and biological "computing" will likely happen in our lifetimes. Providing adequate network bandwidth to the end user. Some of the challenges in network infrastructure are discussed in the next section "The Communications Infrastructure".
With respect to VR specifically, current data transfer rates between disk drives and screens are not up to the task of playing back full-screen movies uncompressed. The state of the art for national backbone and regional networking is megabits per second. The goal of providing adequate bandwidth depends on the definition of "adequate" and how much computing is used to compress and decompress information.
Fiber optics is capable of tremendous information transmission; it is the switches which are computers that govern the speeds and capacity now. Assuming that network bandwidth will be provided as demand increases, it seems likely that within 10 years a significant fraction of the population will be able to afford truly extraordinary bandwidth CSTB, Because ECIs must work in a networked environment, interface design involves choices that depend on the performance of network access and network-based services and features.
What ramifications does connection to networks have for ECIs? This question is relevant because a user interface for any networked application is much more than the immediate set of controls, transducers, and displays that face the user. It is the entire experience that the user has, including the following:. Response time-how close to immediate response from an information site or setup of a communications connection;. Media quality of audio, video, images, computer-generated environments , including delay for real-time communications and being able to send as well as receive with acceptable quality;.
Ability to control media quality and trade-off between applications and against cost;. Transparent mobility anytime, anywhere of terminals, services, and applications over time;. Portable "plug and play" of devices such as cable television set-top boxes and wireless devices;. Integrity and reliability of nomadic computing and communications despite temporary outages and changes in available access bandwidth;. Consistency of service interfaces in different locations not restricted to the United States ; and. The feeling the user has of navigating in a logically configured, consistent, extensible space of information objects and services.
To understand how networking affects user interfaces, consider the two most common interface paradigms for networked applications: These are so widely accepted and accessible to all kinds of people that they can already be regarded as "almost" every-citizen user interfaces.
Research to extend the functionality and performance of these interfaces, without complicating their most common applications, would further NII accessibility for ordinary people. Speech, understood here to describe information exchange with other people and machines more than an immediate interface with a device, is a. It is remarkably robust under varying conditions, including a wide range of communications facilities. The rise of Internet telephony and other voice and video-oriented Internet services reinforces the impression that voice will always be a leading paradigm.
Voice also illustrates that the difference between a curiosity such as today's Internet telephony and a widely used and expected service depends significantly on performance: The "point and click" Web browser reflects basic human behavior, apparent in any child in a toy store who points to something and says click! For reaching information and people, a Web browser is actually far more standard than telephony, which has different dial tones and service measurement systems in different countries.
Research issues include multimedia extensions including clicking with a spoken "I want that" , adaptation to the increasing skill of a user in features such as multiple windows and navigation speed, and adapting to a variety of devices and communication resources that will offer more or less processing power and communications performance. Among the elements of communications infrastructure that affect performance, the access network is one among several network elements including networking in the local area of the user and networking within the public network that have considerable influence on performance.
Access network bandwidth is an important parameter affecting performance. Physical communications networking can be categorized as an interworking of three networking levels: Almost any network-based activity of a residential user is likely to use all three. Local area networks LANs are on the end-user's premises, such as a house, apartment or office building, or university campus. Ethernet, the most widely deployed LAN technology, is already appearing in homes for computer access to cable-based data access systems such as TimeWarner's RoadRunner, Com21's access system, and Home's access system.
It could be in millions of American homes by the year In general, the megabit-per-second Mbps Ethernet is the favored communications interface for connecting personal computers and computing devices to set-top boxes and other network interface devices being developed for high-speed subscriber access networks. A properly engineered shared-bandwidth architecture such as Ethernet allows multiple devices to have the high "burst rate" capability needed for good performance, such as fast transfer of an image, with only rare degradation from congestion.
It is "alwasy on," allowing devices always to be connected and ready to satisfy user needs immediately, as opposed to a tedious connection setup. The introduction of IPv6 in the next decade will create an extremely large pool of Internet addresses, allowing each human being in the world to own hundreds or thousands of them. This development will foster the interconnection of a wide range of devices with embedded systems, a phenomenon that underscores the concern not to cast the NII or ECI challenges in overly personal computer-centric terms. Local networking is not necessarily restricted to one shared wired facility such as Ethernet, which is beginning in the home at 10 Mbps but will likely evolve to "Fast Ethernet" commercial versions or to ATM asynchronous transfer mode connection-oriented communications, at Mbps and higher.
It can include wireless local networking, generalizations of the cordless phone to cordless personal computers and other devices, with burst rates of at least several megabits per second. Local networking is likely to include assigned not shared digital channels in various media for such applications as video programming and other stream or bulk uses, at aggregate data rates of hundreds of megabits per second. How much bandwidth is enough? Assuming "always connected" and good performance from the other network elements to be described, 10 Mbps symmetric should be adequate for almost all processor-based applications including fast response image transfers a 5-megabyte image in 0.
For streaming media such as video, additional requirements of reserved capacity and minimal queuing delay may be needed, requirements for which ATM is well suited. ATM breaks traffic into uniformly-sized "cells" that can be efficiently switched and reassembled with specified quality-of-service guarantees.
CMU prof wins grants for very cool technology". Retrieved 21 December Retrieved 4 February Retrieved 18 April Retrieved 19 November Navy to test humanoid robotic firefighters". Retrieved 6 December Archived from the original on 16 June Archived from the original PDF on 22 March Retrieved 22 December Retrieved 29 September Turn your car into a plane in 30 secs". Archived from the original on 21 November New Zealand company to make personal jet packs".
Agricultural robot Closed ecological systems Cultured meat Genetically modified food Precision agriculture Vertical farming. Arcology Building printing Contour crafting Domed city. Bionic contact lens Head-mounted display Head-up display Optical head-mounted display Virtual retinal display. Electronic nose E-textiles Flexible electronics Molecular electronics Nanoelectromechanical systems Memristor Spintronics Thermal copper pillar bump.
Airborne wind turbine Artificial photosynthesis Biofuels Carbon-neutral fuel Concentrated solar power Fusion power Home fuel cell Hydrogen economy Methanol economy Molten salt reactor Nantenna Photovoltaic pavement Space-based solar power Vortex engine. Beltway battery Compressed air energy storage Flywheel energy storage Grid energy storage Lithium—air battery Molten-salt battery Nanowire battery Research in lithium-ion batteries Silicon—air battery Thermal energy storage Ultracapacitor.
Smart grid Wireless power. Aerogel Amorphous metal Artificial muscle Conductive polymer Femtotechnology Fullerene Graphene High-temperature superconductivity High-temperature superfluidity Linear acetylenic carbon Metamaterials Metamaterial cloaking Metal foam Multi-function structures Nanotechnology Carbon nanotubes Molecular nanotechnology Nanomaterials Picotechnology Programmable matter Quantum dots Silicene Superalloy Synthetic diamond.
Quantum algorithms Quantum amplifier Quantum bus Quantum channel Quantum circuit Quantum complexity theory Quantum computing Quantum cryptography Quantum dynamics Quantum electronics Quantum error correction Quantum imaging Quantum information Quantum key distribution Quantum logic Quantum logic gates Quantum machine Quantum machine learning Quantum metamaterial Quantum metrology Quantum network Quantum neural network Quantum optics Quantum programming Quantum sensing Quantum simulator Quantum teleportation.
Domotics Nanorobotics Powered exoskeleton Self-reconfiguring modular robot Swarm robotics Uncrewed vehicle. Interstellar travel Propellant depot Laser communication in space. Pneumatic transport Automated vacuum collection. Anti-gravity Cloak of invisibility Digital scent technology Force field Plasma window Immersive virtual reality Magnetic refrigeration Phased-array optics.
Collingridge dilemma Differential technological development Disruptive Innovation Ephemeralization Exploratory engineering Fictional technology Proactionary principle Technological change Technological unemployment Technological convergence Technological evolution Technological paradigm Technology forecasting Accelerating change Moore's law Technological singularity Technology scouting Technology readiness level Technology roadmap Transhumanism.
Retrieved from " https: Emerging technologies Technology development Technology forecasting Technology in society. Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December Articles with permanently dead external links Articles needing cleanup from April All pages needing cleanup Cleanup tagged articles with a reason field from April Wikipedia pages needing cleanup from April Use dmy dates from November Accuracy disputes from December All accuracy disputes.
Views Read Edit View history. This page was last edited on 17 September , at By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Closed ecological systems [3] [4] [5]. Research and development, working demonstrators e. Agriculture, scientific research, space colonization. Research and development [6] [7]. Animal husbandry , fishing [7]. Humane, resource-efficient, healthier and cheaper meat [7].
Research and development, diffusion. Research, development, experiments, and diffusion [8] [9] [10]. Covert indoor reconnaissance, "fly-on-the-wall" espionage , operation in confined human-inaccessible spaces. Unmanned aerial vehicle , biomimetics. Neural-sensing headset trans-cranial neural sensing and characterization. Brain—computer interface , neuroprosthetics. Replicator Star Trek , Von Neumann universal constructor. In progress in Dubai [12] Mall of the World project that is being scaled down.
Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, early uses [13]. Lighter and cheaper wires, antistatic materials, organic solar cells. Oil and gas Blowout preventers BOP , jet engines, power turbines, locomotives, electric vehicles, gears and bearings. Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, early uses [14] [15]. Components with higher strength to weight ratios, transistors that operate at higher frequency, lower cost of display screens in mobile devices, storing hydrogen for fuel cell powered cars, sensors to diagnose diseases, more efficient batteries [16].
Cryogenic receiver front-end CRFE RF and microwave filter systems for mobile phone base stations; prototypes in dry ice ; Hypothetical and experiments for higher temperatures [17]. No loss conductors, frictionless bearings, magnetic levitation , lossless high-capacity accumulators , electric cars , heat-free integral circuits and processors. Magnetorheological finishing was used in the construction of the Hubble Space Telescope's corrective lens, shock absorbers of a vehicle's suspension are filled with magnetorheological fluid.
Mechanical gyroscope , flywheel. High-precision measure of gravity, navigation and maneuver devices, possible devices to emit gravitomagnetic field , frictionless mechanical devices. Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion [18]. Microscopes , cameras , metamaterial cloaking , cloaking devices. Space colonies , floating cities. Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, early uses [20] [21].
Structural steel and aluminium. Stronger, lighter materials, space elevator. Potential applications of carbon nanotubes , carbon fiber. Hypothetical, experiments [22] [23]. Research, experiments, prototypes [24] , commercialized. Quantum dot laser , quantum dot display , future use as programmable matter in display technologies TV, projection , optical data communications high-speed data transmission , medicine laser scalpel.
Displays over curved surfaces, Electronic scrolls, Wearable Technology. Research, Working prototypes, commercialization [26].
Television , computer interfaces , cinemas , 3-dimensional imagery. Autostereoscopic display , stereoscopic display , volumetric display , Holographic display , Light Field display , Nintendo 3DS , Swept-volume display. LCD and plasma displays. Laser TV , Comparison of display technology. Holography holographic display , computer-generated holography. Diffusion [27] [28] [29]. Screenless display Virtual retinal display , Bionic contact lens , Augmented reality , virtual reality.
Augmented Reality could allow the user to reference the blue prints like in a construction yard, in a 3D manner, Delivers the user constant up to date information on the stock market, the user's corporation, and meeting statuses, visual disabilities. Research, commercialization [30] [31]. X-ray and MRI scans for detecting cancer. Flexible and folding electronic devices such as smartphones , Flexible solar cells which are lightweight, can be rolled up for launch, and are easily deployable.
Nokia Morph , Flexible organic light-emitting diode. Working prototype [33] [34]. Some current integrated circuits , many other electronics devices. Smaller, faster, lower power consuming storage, analogue electronics , programmable logic , [35] signal processing , [36] neural networks , [37] control systems , [38] reconfigurable computing , [39] brain-computer interfaces [40] and RFID , [41] pattern recognition [42]. Mechanical magnetic hard disk drives. Data storage , computing devices. Thermal copper pillar bump.
Conventional thermal systems, heat sinks , bulk thermoelectrics. Electric circuit cooling; micro-fluidic actuators ; small-device thermoelectric power generation. Ultra high definition holographic disc , Metal—insulator transition. Research [44] [45] [46]. Research, experiments [47] growing interest in a macroscience global project [48]. Improve natural photosynthesis, so roads buildings and vehicles convert sunlight and water into hydrogen and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates.
Sustainocene , Renewable energy , Nanotechnology. Growing markets in California, Spain, Northern Africa [49]. Fossil fuels , photovoltaics. Subsea and deep water oil and gas exploration; wind and fossil fuel electric power generation, nuclear power. Emerging Technologies Science Foundation.
Diffusion, continued development [50]. Regenerative braking ; energy storage: Fossil fuels , renewable energy , nuclear fission power. Producing electricity, heat, fusion torch recycling with waste heat. Traditional nuclear power reactors, fossil fuels. Producing electricity, heat, transmutation of nuclear waste stockpiles from traditional reactors.
Research, commercialisation [51] [52] [53]. Autonomous building , Bloom Energy Server. Other energy storage methods: Laptops, mobile phones, long-range electric cars ; storing energy for electric grid. Lithium iron phosphate battery. Experiments, prototypes [55] [56]. Research [57] [58] [59]. Ocean thermal energy conversion. Research, diffusion [60] [61] [62]. Smart meter , SuperSmart Grid. Chimney , Cooling tower , Solar updraft tower. Prototypes, diffusion, short range consumer products [63] [64]. Power cords, plugs, batteries. WiTricity , resonant inductive coupling.
Photomodels, all film-related jobs including public service announcements , music videos, viral videos , commercials and pornography , except for directors, screenwriters and graphic designers [65]. An artificial environment where the user feels just as immersed as they usually feel in consensus reality. Virtusphere , 3rd Space Vest , haptic suit , immersive technology , simulated reality , holodeck fictional. Treatment of neurological disease, artificial intelligence. Hypothetical, experiments; [67] [68] [69].
Creating intelligent devices and robots ; AI can counsel or even take charge in scientific projects, government, army, corporate governance, film and books creation, inventions etc. Progress in artificial intelligence , technological singularity , applications of artificial intelligence. Blockchain or distributed ledger technology [70]. Eliminating or lowering transaction costs; distributed, open and transparent record keeping; non-hierarchical networked systems; cryptography [71].
Bitcoin , Digital currency , Cryptocurrency , e-democracy. Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor. Smart cities , more responsive government. Civic technology , Smart city , e-democracy , open data , intelligent environment. Money supply , World reserve currency.
Bitcoin , Digital currency.
Nothing found for Ebooks Advances In Computers Improving The Web 78
DNA digital data storage. Fourth-generation optical discs 3D optical data storage , Holographic data storage. Blu-ray Disc , Optical storage. General-purpose computing on graphics processing units. Order of magnitude faster processing of parallelizable algorithms. Diffusion of primitive amplifications; working prototypes of more; Hypothetical, experiments on more substantial amplification. Libraries , schools , training , pocket calculators.
Human translation of natural languages , in areas where misunderstanding is non-critical and language is formalized. Research, prototyping, commercialization [66]. Biometrics , controlling processes e. Computer vision , pattern recognition , digital image processing. Mobile collaboration and e-learning.
Extends the capabilities of video conferencing for use on hand-held mobile devices in real-time over secure networks. For use in diverse industries such as manufacturing, energy, healthcare. Hypothetical, experiments; some components of integrated circuits have been developed [77]. Many electronics devices, integrated circuits. Hypothetical, experiments, [78] commercialization [79].
Atomtronics , Electronic computing , optical computing , quantum clock. Much faster computing, for some kinds of problems, chemical modeling, new materials with programmed properties, Hypothetical of high-temperature superconductivity and superfluidity. Diffusion of high cost [81] [82] [83].