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City of Salem in , courts still allow gender-specific dress and grooming codes, and are legally able to reject exemptions for transgender employees Kirkland :1—2 ; transgender employees thus often face the very difficult choice of complying with the dress code or dressing in the gender they present and potentially losing their jobs. For queer employees, workplace inequality thus remains a fact of life. The Wall Street Journal came up with the term "the glass ceiling " to describe the barriers that women face in efforts to get promoted to top-tier positions within their corporations.
Recruiters, however, still inherently use statistical generalization: the stereotypical woman is more likely to leave her position sooner than a man due to family-related reasons means that women inherently face greater challenges to promotion when the opportunity arise. Financial rewards often play a huge role in people's decisions to enter and stay in corporate firms, [56] but their experiences there often explain why they left. The "up-or-out" system prevalent in many consulting firms can help to explain the male-dominated hierarchy; [52] for women who require maternity leave their roles cannot be sustained in such an environment.
While numerous firms support formal internal diversity initiatives, [57] women are often also excluded from the informal networks that men partake in outside of the office, activities that revolve around a "jock-talk" atmosphere [52] which bonds the men and helps create connections that are important when promotions become available. Moreover, many Wall Street corporations are deeply rooted in their beliefs concerning gender norms and are said to cultivate machismo.
A preference for coworkers of similar features to oneself meant that managers often specifically selected individuals to share accounts and deals with; many times, this meant disadvantaging women and minorities for account allocations, performance evaluations and relative compensation. Often, women are driven to switch fields within the business sector, for example from corporate finance to equity research, from heavily male-dominated to those that are more gender neutral.
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Such trade may result in substantial pay cuts, as the median earning in the new sector can be much lower than the median income in the old sector. Many firms have formal mentorship programs to guide promising new junior employees. This can often end disastrously for workers who are outside of the informal networks that can start such ties. Gender inequality in the workplace is experienced across many different industries and manifests itself in a multitude of different ways. For science, technology, engineering and mathematics STEM fields specifically, varying workplace experiences among men and women can be attributed to differences in communication styles and social norms in the industry.
Because STEM fields are so dominated by men, women working in these industries are often expected to act more masculine to be taken seriously. Furthermore, the lack of women steers the culture and social norms within many of these industries to become more "masculine" and therefore, many women don't have others to model themselves after and as a result feel that they have to change in order to "fit in".
In STEM industries, meetings and technical discussions are often very knowledge and experience based. In these settings, people with more dominant — and often perceived to be "masculine" — personas tend to drive and overpower the conversation because they sound more knowledgeable on a certain topic.
This way of communication, often correlated with self-promotion, can put men and people with more masculine personas at an advantage because "self-promotion is a stereotypically masculine communication style involving aggressive displays of confidence that assert one's own superiority". Another way this manifests itself is in varying communication styles.
A person with a "competitive communication style" may frequently interrupt others as a way of showing dominance. This leads to women feeling less competent in their technical abilities, and decreased productivity as they begin to feel like their opinions don't matter as much, leading to a negative work environment.
Another factor that creates the difference in experience for men and women in STEM fields is the social climate. The idea of the "old boy culture" is very much pertinent in male-dominated STEM fields where women find it difficult to fit in. Because mentors are very important in aiding in career development as well as building self-esteem in the workplace, the lack of female mentors inhibits the growth and success of women in STEM workplaces.
Because of these social factors and the communication differences between men and women, the experience for women in STEM fields varies greatly from that of women in more gender-balanced or female-dominated industries. Beginning in the s, the U. Here we discuss several work-family ideologies, the ideology promoted by most American institutions, explanations for why this is the prevailing ideology, and implications of the resulting gendered division of labor. Generally, the way in which labor is divided in the home is reflective of the work-family ideologies to which the husband and wife individually subscribe.
Mary Blair-Loy identifies three of these ideologies: traditional, egalitarian, and transitional. The egalitarian arrangement entails that the husband and wife be equally active at home and in the workforce. The transitional arrangement allows for both husband and wife to be engaged in the workforce, with the wife taking on the bulk of the homemaking responsibilities.
Families that adopt the transitional arrangement often utilize full-time, paid childcare because the work of both parents demands long hours, even if the wife works only part-time. Although individuals subscribe to varying work-family ideologies, American institutions reflect a gendered division of labor that encourages women to be active in the domestic sphere and men in the workforce. There is a stigma associated with women working full-time, especially if they are married or have children, whereas men are expected to work full-time. Stay-at-home wives enable men to devote their time and energy to their careers.
Even outside of Wall Street, many modern organizations assume that most families employ a traditional ideology although, statistically, this is no longer the norm. A number of explanations have been posited for the existence of a gendered division of labor. Gary Becker theorizes that women are more likely to leave the labor force or work part-time because they have a lower earning potential than men.
Thus, it makes sense economically for men to focus on their careers if the family's aim is to maximize income and provide adequate childcare. After all, men's earnings increase and women's decrease when they have children. However, equally plausible is the argument that these trends result from the cultural norms that sway potentially high-earning women toward home rather than toward work.
The differential distribution of household work has significant implications. For example, most married mothers become economically dependent on their husbands, but the law does not grant them financial equality in marriage. This means that, in the case of divorce, mothers experience a dramatic drop in income. Moreover, the social safety net does not protect divorced or single mothers from poverty, and mothers are not eligible for unemployment insurance if they work part-time or at home.
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The family factor, especially for married women, is one of the reasons that leads to more mobile inclination for women than men in job market. Compared with men who have more freedom to decide their workplaces, to move frequently in working system is obvious a disadvantage for women to improve their positions or to earn more income. On the other hand, men are more willing to relocate workplaces when their wives have better income, but not their wives' careers themselves, which means the power in family can also be transferred through women create more economic value than their husbands.
Another source describes the variety of women's careers in their lifetime as "snake-like", [80] meaning they move from job to job through their whole career lives flexibly. Compared with challenge of flexibility, this research provides a new idea that some women actually gain benefits by developing their own business to fulfill family needs. The structure of today's family has evolved over the past decades [ when?
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Non-traditional family units can include single-parent families, families with one biological parent and a step-parent, blended families, gay marriage families, and families where parents are absent and grandparents or other relatives take over parental roles. While all these non-traditional family lifestyles might present social challenges for the children as well as create undesirable career experiences, the two units that warrant the most consideration [ according to whom? There are a number of ways that women become single mothers: divorce, outside marriage births, and partner death.
Only recently [ when? Single mothers are faced with a number of challenges primarily resulting from low income. Single mothers, although working long strenuous hours at these low-paying jobs, are still unable to cope with the financial burden of childcare. With the burden of single-motherhood becoming more and more of a prevalent issue, one would think that it would begin to be taken into serious consideration by the public.
However, progress toward gender integration has slowed, childcare expenses are on the rise, housing isn't getting any cheaper and health care is still expensive. Homosexuals have faced much harassment as well as segregation in the workforce community. Individuals of different sexual orientations have been criticized, segregated and physically harassed for decades even within the labor community, a place which being homosexual should not reflect upon how well one performs a job. In fact, "studies have shown that anywhere from 15 percent to 43 percent of gay people have experienced some form of discrimination and harassment in the workplace".
These particular members of society come home to their partners and family similar to how a heterosexual male or female comes home to their families. However, these homosexual families are faced with ridicule by a majority of society. Children who are raised in a gay-marriage family are often faced with tougher social challenges because they are not in a more traditional family unit.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. September Further information: Racial wage gap in the United States.
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July Main article: Educational inequality. Main article: Employment discrimination. Main article: Gender pay gap. The American Journal of Sociology. Work and Occupations.
Social Problems. Labor Markets". American Journal of Sociology. Learning from the Workplace Experiences of Transpeople". Gender and Society. The American Prospect. National Center for Policy Analysis. Journal of Urban Affairs. Howell and Edward N.
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The New York Times. Retrieved 20 November Laubacher, and Tammy Johns. Harvard Business Review. Lesbians brought the principles of radical feminism on the emerging new philosophy, and GLF activists argued that the institution of heterosexual families necessitated the oppression of homosexuals, allowing them to define their gayness as a form of political resistance. GLF activist Martha Shelley wrote, "We are women and men who, from the time of our earliest memories, have been in revolt against the sex role structure and nuclear family structure.
Many of the leaders of these two groups had been either active in or heavily influenced by the ideas first promoted by GLF.