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English writers of the early s saw little income from their creative efforts and were dependent on political appointments and the patronage of wealthy aristocrats. As the youngest son of a youngest son, Gay came to London at age twenty-two with no title, no money, and only a few useful contacts. In time, Gay got to know London and the inner workings of government, and found rampant corruption at almost every turn. Administrative posts were available to the highest bidder, regardless of ability. All but the richest inmates had to settle for darkness and squalor.

Gay viewed this Italian invention with skepticism. Foreign composers and singers were imported at great cost, earning far more than their British counterparts. Feuding sopranos Francesca Cuzzoni and Faustina Bordoni each earned 2, pounds or more for a single season in London. Take this scene, in which Mr.


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Peachum discover that their daughter has secretly married Macheath. Peachum: Married! The captain is a bold man, and will risk anything for money; to be sure, he believes her a fortune. Do you think your mother and I should have lived comfortably so long together if ever we had been married? Peachum: I knew she was always a proud slut; and now the wench hath played the fool and married, because forsooth she would do like the gentry.

Can you support the expense of a husband, hussy, in gaming, drinking, and whoring?


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    5. Have you money enough to carry on the daily quarrels of man and wife about who shall squander most? There are not many husbands and wives who can bear the charges of plaguing one another in a handsome way. If you must be married, could you introduce nobody into our family but a highwayman? Why, thou foolish jade, thou wilt be as ill-used, and as much neglected, as if thou hadst married a lord! Peachum: Let not your anger, my dear, break through the rules of decency, for the Captain looks upon himself in the military capacity, as a gentleman by his profession.

    Besides what he hath already, I know he is in a fair way of getting, or of dying; and both these ways, let me tell you, are most excellent chances for a wife. Tell me, hussy, are you ruined or no? Yes, that you might, you pouting slut!

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    Peachum: What, is the wench dumb? Are you really bound wife to him, or are you only upon liking? Pinches Polly. Polly: Screaming Oh! Peachum: How the mother is to be pitied who has handsome daughters! Locks, bolts, bars, and lectures of morality are nothing to them—they break through them all.

    They have as much pleasure in cheating a father and mother, as in cheating at cards. Will cupid our mothers obey? Peachum: Then all the hopes for our family are gone for ever and ever! But I love him. Peachum: Love him! Worse and worse! I thought the girl had been better bred. It seemed that everybody of consequence in London society saw it, and its lyrics were repeated in every ale house and side street.

    The Whig establishment was being laughed at and did not appreciate it. Lacking any lasting interest, none of these later works are performed or studied today. British and U. A long list of writers and composers from Gilbert and Sullivan to Mel Brooks can look back on John Gay as an artistic forefather. Such are the earliest roots of musical theatre. But what we know as the modern musical was born and raised in Paris, for which fans of the genre can be eternally grateful.

    The composer most responsible for developing this new genre was not a born Frenchman. From the very start, the modern musical theatre showed signs of being an international art form. A Viking invasion and various civil upheavals did their worst, but Paris gradually spread out to either side of the river in a confusing jumble of streets and neighborhoods.

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    Realizing that an uprising would be almost impossible to control in such a city, many French monarchs preferred to spend most of their time at a safe distance. Theatre survived when the poor of Paris exercised their mob power with a series of riots in the late eighteenth century, culminating in the overthrow of King Louis XVI and the prolonged upheavals of the French Revolution — In the bloody years that followed, the guillotine rose and fell, as did a series of governments, but Paris remained a center of the arts, including theatre.

    Napoleon Bonaparte, who crowned himself Emperor of France in , had disposed of various European monarchs and promptly installed his relatives on the empty thrones. When Bonaparte was forced out of power in , his relatives soon lost their titles.

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    His illegitimate nephew Louis, who had been prince of Holland, resented the demotion. When the Revolution of forced the formation of a new French republic, Louis was elected president by a landslide margin. Bored by constitutional limitations, he staged a bloodless coup in , and after one year as dictator, arranged a national referendum that granted him the title of Emperor. History knows his eighteen-year reign as the Second Empire.

    Napoleon III instituted a series of reforms, modernizing the French economy and encouraging widespread industrialization. These changes created new jobs for the working class and new fortunes for entrepreneurs. The Emperor also gave Paris a radical facelift, with ancient neighborhoods demolished to make way for parks and wider boulevards—not only beautiful, but designed to offer better crowd control if the poor ever rioted again.

    Few complained as his regime censored all dissension in the press, rendered the legislature powerless, and placed the performing arts under a slew of picayune regulations. Fortunately, these rules did almost nothing to regulate the content or subject matter of stage entertainments.

    Theatre and opera had long been part of Parisian life, and both drew expanded and enthusiastic audiences in this era of renewed prosperity. His professional goal was to create a new kind of musical entertainment that would offer more fun than grand opera while retaining a high degree of musical sophistication. Others were already attempting this feat, with limited degrees of success. Adolphe Adam — is best remembered for composing the ballet Giselle, but he also wrote music for several early comic light operas, including Pierre et Catherine He opened his own Opera National in , where he offered a series of such works written by himself and others.

    There he presented more than thirty of his own musicals, and also showcased several early pieces by Offenbach. The Theatre des Bouffes Parisiens may not have looked like much, but it was near the fairgrounds and just the right size for the intimate musical productions that Offenbach was planning.

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    He would have preferred to work on a larger scale, but imperial law forced him to keep it small. To prevent competition with government-sponsored operatic productions, musical works at independent theatres were limited to one act in length and no more than three singing characters—a silent character could be added by special license. Operating on the principle that bigger is not necessarily better, Offenbach and a small team of librettists set out to turn this handicap into an asset. In opera, the music is always paramount; in operetta, the words and music are ideally of equal value.

    The music was lighter than the sort of bombast one heard in grand opera but still quite demanding, requiring a higher caliber of vocal training than popular street ballads. The overall tone of Les Deux Aveugles was decidedly comic and appealed to the contemporary point of view, allowing Parisians to laugh at themselves—which is probably the only thing they have always enjoyed more than laughing at others. Offenbach soon dropped pantomimes from the repertory and concentrated on one-act opera-bouffes. His shows turned into the must-see events of the Exposition season, and everybody who was anybody made a point of attending, including members of the imperial court.

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    He penned Entrez, Messieurs, Mesdames! They want nothing more than to return to France, but King Fe-ni-han wants Alfred to succeed him, thwarting the royal ambitions of Ko-ko-ri-ko, the ambitious captain of the royal guard— who, in keeping with the three-character limit, is never seen. Ko-ko-ri-ko turns out to be a Frenchman too, and informs the others via letter that he is willing to take the throne so that the rest of them can return to France.

    This bit of tuneful nonsense kept the new Bouffes Parisiens packed as tightly as its tiny predecessor.

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    Offenbach composed with astonishing speed, providing his audience with an ever-changing repertory. In alone, he wrote and produced seven new one-acts. In a shrewd move designed to garner fresh publicity, the composer held a contest for operettas written in his style, offering the winner 1, francs and a guaranteed production. Despite excellent ticket sales, the Bouffes Parisiens kept falling into debt. By the time the French government dropped the ludicrous three-character restriction in , Offenbach was in desperate need of a moneymaking hit.

    However, the intention was to evoke laughter, not to incite rebellion or, worse yet, to preach. In the world of opera-bouffes, nobody is perfect, and everyone can afford to laugh at everyone else. Initial response to the music was positive, but critics complained about the irreverent libretto, and it seems no one recognized that something new and exciting was taking place. After all, it was positively unnatural for a production to run so long!

    Imagine how they would react to the twenty-year runs that hit musicals enjoy today. Eh hop! Look out!