The History of England (–61) is David Hume's great work on the history of England, which he wrote in instalments while he was librarian to the Faculty of Advocates in Edinburgh. It was published in six volumes in , , , and The first publication of his History was greeted with outrage by all political The history of England from the invasion of Julius.
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In addition merchants and soldiers introduced oriental cults, among them Christianity. The latter, however, made little headway until the late 4th century, though the frescoes at Lullingstone in Kent and the mosaics at Hinton St. Mary in Dorset attest its presence among villa owners. Although classical temples are sometimes found in towns, the normal temple was of the Romano-Celtic type consisting of a small square shrine and surrounding portico; temples of this type are found in town and country alike. Romanization was strongest in the towns and among the upper classes, as would be expected; there is evidence that in the countryside Celtic continued to be spoken, though it was not written.
Many people were bilingual: Evidence of the classical education of the villa owners is provided by their mosaics , which prove an acquaintance with classical mythology and even with the Aeneid of Virgil. Sculpture and wall painting were both novelties in Roman Britain. Statues or busts in bronze or marble were imported from Gaulish or Mediterranean workshops, but British sculptors soon learned their trade and at their best produced attractive works in a provincial idiom , often for votive purposes.
Many cruder works were also executed whose interest lies in the proof they afford that the conventions of the classical world had penetrated even to the lower classes. Mosaic floors, found in towns and villas, were at first, as at Fishbourne, laid by imported craftsmen.
But there is evidence that by the middle of the 2nd century a local firm was at work at Colchester and Verulamium, and in the 4th century a number of local mosaic workshops can be recognized by their styles. One of the most skilled of these was based in Cirencester. Roman civilization thus took root in Britain; its growth was more obvious in urban circles than among the peasants and weakest in the resistant highland zone.
It was a provincial version of Roman culture , but one with recognizably British traits. The reforms of Diocletian ended the chaos of the 3rd century and ushered in the late imperial period. This man had been in command against the Saxon pirates in the Channel and by his naval power was able to maintain his independence. His main achievement was to complete the new system of Saxon Shore forts around the southeastern coasts. At first he sought recognition as coemperor, but this was refused.
In the fall of Boulogne to Roman forces led to his murder and the accession of Allectus , who, however, fell in his turn when Constantius I invaded Britain in He divided Britain into four provinces, and in the same period the civil power was separated from the military. Late Roman sources show three separate commands respectively under the dux Britanniarum commander of the Britains , the comes litoris Saxonici count of the Saxon Shore , and the comes Britanniarum , though the dates of their establishment are unknown and may not have been identical.
The 4th century was a period of great prosperity in towns and countryside alike. Britain had escaped the barbarian invasions of the 3rd century and may have seemed a safe refuge for wealthy continentals. Its weakness lay in the fact that its defense was ultimately controlled by distant rather than local rulers. The garrison was perhaps weakened by withdrawals for the civil war of Magnentius — ; at any rate in a military disaster occurred due to concerted seaborne attacks from the Picts of Scotland and the Scots of Ireland. But, though the frontier and forts behind it suffered severely, there is little trace of damage to towns or villas.
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Count Theodosius in restored order and strengthened the defenses of the towns with external towers designed to mount artillery. Prosperity continued, but the withdrawals of troops by Magnus Maximus in and again at the end of the century by Stilicho weakened security. Thus, when Constantine III , who was declared emperor by the army in Britain in , took further troops to Gaul, the forces remaining in the island were insufficient to provide protection against increasing Pictish and Saxon raids. The Britons appealed to the legitimate emperor, Honorius , who was unable to send assistance but authorized the cities to provide for their own defense This marks the end of Roman Britain, for the central government never reestablished control, but for a generation there was little other outward change.
Power fell gradually into the hands of tyrants. Chief of these was Vortigern c. Independence was producing separate interests. By this date Christianity had made considerable headway in the island, but the leaders followed the heretical teaching of Pelagius , himself a Briton, who had emphasized the importance of the human will over divine grace in the achievement of salvation.
It has been held that the self-reliance shown in the maintenance of national independence was inspired by this philosophy. Yet there was also a powerful Roman Catholic party anxious to reforge the links with Rome, in support of whom St. Germanus of Auxerre visited Britain in It may have been partly to thwart the plans of this party that Vortigern made the mistake c. Planned settlement of this sort is the best explanation for the earliest Saxon settlements found around the mouths of the east-coast estuaries and also in the central southeast region around Oxford.
For a time the system worked successfully, but, when in these Saxon foederati allies rebelled and called in others of their race to help them, it was found that they had been given a stranglehold on Britain. A long period of warfare and chaos was inaugurated, which was economically disastrous. It was probably this period that saw the disintegration of the majority of the villa estates; with the breakdown of markets and the escape of slaves, villas ceased to be viable and must have gradually fallen into ruin, though the land itself did not cease to be cultivated.
A few villas met a violent end. The towns, under the protection of their strong defenses, at first provided refuge at any rate for the rich who could leave their lands; but by degrees decay set in as trade declined and finally even the supply of food was threatened. For several decades they suffered reverses; many emigrated to Brittany. In the second half of the 5th century Ambrosius Aurelianus and the shadowy figure of Arthur began to turn the tide by the use of cavalry against the ill-armed Saxon infantry.
A great victory was won at Mons Badonicus a site not identifiable toward But in the second half the situation slowly worsened. We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Your contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions. Our editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article.
Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. Roman Britain The conquest Julius Caesar conquered Gaul between 58 and 50 bc and invaded Britain in 55 or 54 bc , thereby bringing the island into close contact with the Roman world. Condition of the province There was a marked contrast in attitude toward the Roman occupation between the lowland Britons and the inhabitants of Wales and the hill country of the north.
Army and frontier After the emperor Domitian had reduced the garrison in about the year 90, three legions remained; their permanent bases were established at York, Chester , and Caerleon. Administration Britain was an imperial province. Roman society Pre-Roman Celtic tribes had been ruled by kings and aristocracies; the Roman civitates remained in the hands of the rich because of the heavy expense of office. Economy Even before the conquest, according to the Greek geographer Strabo , Britain exported gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves, and hounds in addition to grain.
Towns Belgic Britain had large centres of population but not towns in the Roman sense of having not merely streets and public buildings but also the amenities and local autonomy of a city. Villas Apart from the exceptional establishment at Fishbourne, in West Sussex , whose Italian style and luxurious fittings show that it was the palace of King Cogidubnus, the houses of Romano-British villas had simple beginnings and were of a provincial type. Religion and culture A great variety of religious cults were to be found. The decline of Roman rule The reforms of Diocletian ended the chaos of the 3rd century and ushered in the late imperial period.
Page 13 of Next page Anglo-Saxon England. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: English education was less consciously nationalist than that of continental European countries but was deeply influenced by social class structure. Traditionally, the English held that the activity of the government should be restricted to essential matters such…. Britain in was still in the middle of a building boom that had begun at the end of the Napoleonic Wars in A Gothic Revival was in a sense initiated early in England during the late 16th century under the influence of Elizabethan and Jacobean notions of chivalry and again between and under the impetus of William….
Hamilton—Scottish painter, archaeologist, and dealer—spent most of his working life in Rome, and his paintings include two series of large and influential canvases of Homeric subjects. It prepared students for non-commercial careers in government, the law, medicine, education, and the ministry and a smaller group for careers in science and engineering. From Scottish universities could admit and graduate women and the numbers of women at Scottish universities steadily increased until the early 20th century. The years before the First World War were the golden age of the inshore fisheries.
Landings reached new heights, and Scottish catches dominated Europe's herring trade, [] accounting for a third of the British catch. High productivity came about thanks to the transition to more productive steam-powered boats, while the rest of Europe's fishing fleets were slower because they were still powered by sails.
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In the Khaki Election of , nationalist concern with the Boer War meant that the Conservatives and their Liberal Unionist allies gained a majority of Scottish seats for the first time, although the Liberals regained their ascendancy in the next election. Scotland played a major role in the British effort in the First World War. For example, the Singer Clydebank sewing machine factory received over government contracts, and made million artillery shells, shell components, fuses, and aeroplane parts, as well as grenades, rifle parts, and , horseshoes.
Its labour force of 14, was about 70 percent female at war's end. With a population of 4. Occasionally Scottish troops made up large proportions of the active combatants, and suffered corresponding loses, as at the Battle of Loos , where there were three full Scots divisions and other Scottish units. In Glasgow, radical agitation led to industrial and political unrest that continued after the war ended.
A boom was created by the First World War, with the shipbuilding industry expanding by a third, but a serious depression hit the economy by The heavy dependence on obsolescent heavy industry and mining was a central problem, and no one offered workable solutions. The despair reflected what Finlay describes as a widespread sense of hopelessness that prepared local business and political leaders to accept a new orthodoxy of centralised government economic planning when it arrived during the Second World War.
A few industries did grow, such as chemicals and whisky, which developed a global market for premium "Scotch". After World War I the Liberal Party began to disintegrate and Labour emerged as the party of progressive politics in Scotland, gaining a solid following among working classes of the urban lowlands. As a result, the Unionists were able to gain most of the votes of the middle classes, who now feared Bolshevik revolution, setting the social and geographical electoral pattern in Scotland that would last until the late 20th century.
John MacLean emerged as a key political figure in what became known as Red Clydeside , and in January , the British Government, fearful of a revolutionary uprising, deployed tanks and soldiers in central Glasgow. Formerly a Liberal stronghold, the industrial districts switched to Labour by , with a base in the Irish Catholic working class districts. Women were especially active in building neighbourhood solidarity on housing and rent issues. However, the "Reds" operated within the Labour Party and had little influence in Parliament; in the face of heavy unemployment the workers' mood changed to passive despair by the late s.
With all the main parties committed to the Union, new nationalist and independent political groupings began to emerge, including the National Party of Scotland in and Scottish Party in They joined to form the Scottish National Party SNP in , with the goal of creating an independent Scotland , but it enjoyed little electoral success in the Westminster system. He launched numerous initiatives to promote Scotland, attracting businesses and new jobs through his new Scottish Council of Industry.
He set up 32 committees to deal with social and economic problems, ranging from juvenile delinquency to sheep farming. He regulated rents, and set up a prototype national health service, using new hospitals set up in the expectation of large numbers of casualties from German bombing. His most successful venture was setting up a system of hydro electricity using water power in the Highlands. In World War II, despite extensive bombing by the Luftwaffe, Scottish industry came out of the depression slump by a dramatic expansion of its industrial activity, absorbing unemployed men and many women as well.
The shipyards were the centre of more activity, but many smaller industries produced the machinery needed by the British bombers, tanks and warships. Real wages, adjusted for inflation, rose 25 per cent, and unemployment temporarily vanished. While emigration began to tail off in England and Wales after the First World War, [] it continued apace in Scotland, with , Scots, ten per cent of the population, estimated to have left the country between and Government subsidies for travel and relocation facilitated the decision to emigrate.
Personal networks of family and friends who had gone ahead and wrote back, or sent money, prompted emigrants to retrace their paths. In the early 20th century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced by modernism and resurgent nationalism, known as the Scottish Renaissance. MacDiarmid attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including " A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle " , developing a form of Synthetic Scots that combined different regional dialects and archaic terms.
All were born within a fifteen-year period and and, although they cannot be described as members of a single school, they all pursued an exploration of identity, rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues. In the 20th century, the centre of the education system became more focused on Scotland, with the ministry of education partly moving north in and then finally having its headquarters relocated to Edinburgh in In , Roman Catholic schools were brought into the state system, but retained their distinct religious character, access to schools by priests and the requirement that school staff be acceptable to the Church.
The first half of the 20th century saw Scottish universities fall behind those in England and Europe in terms of participation and investment. The decline of traditional industries between the wars undermined recruitment. English universities increased the numbers of students registered between and by 19 per cent, but in Scotland the numbers fell, particularly among women. In the same period, while expenditure in English universities rose by 90 per cent, in Scotland the increase was less than a third of that figure.
Scotland's Scapa Flow was the main base for the Royal Navy in the 20th century. Public protests from CND campaigners proved futile. The Royal Navy successfully convinced the government to allow the base because it wanted its own Polaris -class submarines, and it obtained them in The first patrol of a Trident -armed submarine occurred in , although the US base was closed at the end of the Cold War. After World War II, Scotland's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes.
This only began to change in the s, partly due to the discovery and development of North Sea oil and gas and partly as Scotland moved towards a more service-based economy. This period saw the emergence of the Scottish National Party and movements for both Scottish independence and more popularly devolution.
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However, a referendum on devolution in was unsuccessful as it did not achieve the support of 40 per cent of the electorate despite a small majority of those who voted supporting the proposal. A national referendum to decide on Scottish independence was held on 18 September Voters were asked to answer either "Yes" or "No" to the question: In the second half of the 20th century the Labour Party usually won most Scottish seats in the Westminster parliament, losing this dominance briefly to the Unionists in the s.
Support in Scotland was critical to Labour's overall electoral fortunes as without Scottish MPs it would have gained only two UK electoral victories in the 20th century and The Scottish National Party gained its first seat at Westminster in and became a party of national prominence during the s, achieving 11 MPs in Tony Blair who was brought up in Scotland from to and Gordon Brown from to , [] opened the way for constitutional change.
On 11 September , the th anniversary of Battle of Stirling Bridge , the Blair led Labour government again held a referendum on the issue of devolution. A positive outcome led to the establishment of a devolved Scottish Parliament in A coalition government, which would last until , was formed between Labour and the Liberal Democrats, with Donald Dewar as First Minister. It became the official opposition in , a minority government in and a majority government from The discovery of the giant Forties oilfield in October signalled that Scotland was about to become a major oil producing nation, a view confirmed when Shell Expro discovered the giant Brent oilfield in the northern North Sea east of Shetland in Oil production started from the Argyll field now Ardmore in June , followed by Forties in November of that year.
A new service-oriented economy emerged to replace traditional heavy industries. In the 20th century existing Christian denominations were joined by other organisations, including the Brethren and Pentecostal churches. Although some denominations thrived, after World War II there was a steady overall decline in church attendance and resulting church closures for most denominations. The talks were ended in , when the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland rejected the proposals. The Church of Scotland is the largest religious grouping in Scotland, with The Roman Catholic Church accounted for In recent years other religions have established a presence in Scotland, mainly through immigration and higher birth rates among ethnic minorities, with a small number of converts.
Those with the most adherents in the census are Islam 1. There are also various organisations which actively promote humanism and secularism , included within the Although plans to raise the school leaving age to 15 in the s were never ratified, increasing numbers stayed on beyond elementary education and it was eventually raised to 16 in As a result, secondary education was the major area of growth in the second half of the 20th century.
He was also the first Scots Makar the official national poet , appointed by the inaugural Scottish government in From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Part of a series on the. Architecture Art The Kilt Literature. Football Rugby union National football team Golf. Edinburgh timeline Glasgow timeline. Scotland during the Roman Empire. Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. Origins of the Kingdom of Alba. Wars of Scottish Independence. Union of the Crowns. Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Scotland under the Commonwealth and Restoration Scotland.
Glorious Revolution in Scotland. Acts of Union Economic history of Scotland. History of Christianity in Scotland. History of education in Scotland. Scottish Renaissance and Literature of Scotland. Social history of the United Kingdom —present and Political history of the United Kingdom —present. Scotland portal History portal.
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Stringer, eds, Medieval Scotland: Grant, "The construction of the early Scottish state", in J. Palliser, eds, The Medieval State: Essays presented to James Campbell Continuum, , p. A Festschrift for Marjorie O. Anderson Four Courts, , pp. Corning, The Celtic and Roman Traditions: Yorke, The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. Snyder, The Britons Wiley-Blackwell, , p. Martin's Press, , p. Woolf, From Pictland to Alba: Hudson, Kings of Celtic Scotland Greenhill, , pp. Mackie, A History of Scotland Pelican, , p. The Making of the Kingdom , p. Barrow, "David I of Scotland: The Balance of New and Old", in G.
A New History Random House, , p. Kinship and Nation Sutton, , p. Mitchison, A History of Scotland Routledge, 3rd edn. Macdougall, An Antidote to the English: Tuck, Crown and Nobility: England — Wiley-Blackwell, 2nd edn. Kearney, The British Isles: University of California Press, , p. Edinburgh University Press, Ashgate, , p. Keen, England in the Later Middle Ages: Bloody Border Conflict Osprey, , p. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, — Edinburgh University Press, , p. Mason, Scots and Britons: Scottish political thought and the union of Cambridge University Press, , p.
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Lenman, Enlightenment and Change: Scotland — 2nd ed. Devine, The Scottish Nation , pp. Roberts, The Jacobite Wars: Scotland and the Military Campaigns of and Polygon, , pp. Scottish Americans in the American South , p. Richards, The Highland Clearances: People, Landlords and Rural Turmoil Daunton, Progress and Poverty: An Economic and Social History of Britain — , p.
Gray, The Highland Economy, — Edinburgh, Jews, Confucians, and Protestants: Cultural Capital and the End of Multiculturalism. Swingewood, "Origins of Sociology: Jones, A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment, — Fry, Adam Smith's Legacy: The Language of Mineralogy: Whatley, "'Juteopolis' in the Making: Linen and the Industrial Transformation of Dundee, c.
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Saville, Bank of Scotland: Kroszner, "Scottish Banking before A Model for Laissez-Faire? Brown, Religion and society in Scotland since , p. Divine, The Scottish Nation , pp. Ditchfield, The Evangelical Revival Routledge, , p. Anderson, Education and the Scottish People, — Anderson, Education and the Scottish people , p.
Anderson, "The history of Scottish Education pre", in T. Humes, eds, Scottish Education: Cairncross, The Scottish economy p. Finlay, Scotland in the Twentieth Century Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, , pp. Asymmetry and Processes of Re-symmetrization in Europe Aldershot: In the 15th Century to read it in English carried a death sentence. People still argue about which translation should be read. How did the Bible become one of our best-selling — and most controversial — books ever? One of the earliest depictions of the Apostle Peter, who founded the Roman church.
After Jesus died, his disciples began spreading his teachings. Within a century, Christianity had emerged as a new religion. Jesus did not write down his teachings. His disciples set about spreading his message by word of mouth. James formed a Jewish Christian church in Jerusalem. Peter and Paul went to Rome. Thomas is said to have travelled to India. In the decades after Jesus' death, many accounts of his life — known as gospels — were written in different places, and in different languages, including Greek.
This Roman mosaic at Hinton St Mary in Dorset is claimed to be one of the oldest depictions of Christ anywhere in the world. In 43AD, the Romans invaded Britain. Roman traders probably introduced Christianity, along with other Mediterranean traditions. Christians brought individual texts or gospels with them, and read or chanted them when they worshipped. Locals might have admired the solemnity and ceremony, but might not have understood the Greek or Latin until it was explained. And while it slowly drove out competitors in what is now Ireland, Scotland and Wales, it almost vanished from England when the Anglo-Saxons invaded in the fifth century.
The Bible we know emerged after power struggles among early Christians. Even then, different translations existed. It was still rare for these texts to be bound together in a single volume. In Britannia, most scripture texts would have been single biblical books, or other groupings. A page from St Augustine's Gospels, which is one of the oldest surviving European books. Augustine was a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I 'the Great' to bring the kingdom of Kent into the fold of the Roman church.
This began a resurgence of Christianity in what would become England. Within a few decades there were dozens of monasteries, where monks copied the Bible by hand. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He brought his own copy of the gospels with him, and this is still used when a new archbishop is sworn in. Around the start of the 8th Century, on the island of Lindisfarne, a monk named Eadfrith copied all four gospels of the New Testament by hand. The Lindisfarne Gospels is the oldest surviving collection of the four New Testament gospels written in Britain.
The text blends different artistic styles, reflecting how the older Celtic church and the new Roman Church of Augustine were vying for power. Like all gospels of the era it was written in Latin. Around AD, a commentator added an Anglo-Saxon translation. These notes are the oldest surviving version of any gospel in a British language. A scribe - probably Bede - writing. From 'Life and Miracles of St. The Latin of biblical texts bore little relation to the Anglo-Saxon language. Translations were needed to train English monks.
One such monk, Bede, translated many works including John's gospel. Yet his history is selective. Bede therefore helped ally English Christianity to Rome. At this time many Latin words entered English, including priest, paper and school. The Church regulated lives by controlling what people did during the day and what they did in bed. By the 14th Century, the Church was a powerful pillar of British society. Church teaching dictated how people lived their lives.
Lay people only heard the Bible in Latin so relied on priests to interpret God's words and biblical stories. Scholar John Wycliffe believed the official Church abused this power, for example by promising salvation to those who donated money. He believed individuals should be able to read scripture and decide for themselves how to live well.