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Table of contents
In the selection of many of his epochs-as for instance, the Calling of Abraham, the Pro mulgation of the Law by Moses, and the Building of Solomon's Temple-he affords us no assistance in the arrangement of events in the great empires of antiquity, with which the Jews in those remote periods had no connection. Such a? Thus, for example, in the Tableau de l' Ilistoire Jlfoderne of Mehegan, the seventh epoch is Christopher Columbus, , being the date of his discovery of America.
The next epoch is the peace of 1Vestphalia, between France, Sweden, and the Empire, in Supposing these epochs to be easily remembered, it may be asked what help they afford towards the recollection of the dates of any of the intermediate events in this interval of one hundred and fifty-six years, or of the order in which they succeeded each other. Yet some of these were among the most remarkable that have occurred in the annals of the world: for instance, the Reformation in Germany and Eng land-the Revolt of the Netherlands, and the Establishment of the Republic of the United Provinces-the Edict of Nantes, giving toleration to the Protestants in France-the Expulsion of the.
Moors from Spain. The recollection that the discovery of America happened in , affords no help to the remembrance of the time of the Reformation, nor tends to fix in the memory whet. The classing of these unconnected events under one general epoch, tends only to a confused reference of them all to one date, although, between them, there was almost a century of difference of time.
Besides, in every method of classification, there ought to be a relation between the objects classified, which the mind at once perceives, so that the idea of the one naturally leads to or suggests that of the other. Now such connection it is evident there cannot be in such an arrangement, where the events happening in a certain period of time over the whole globe, are all referred to one event that happened in the, first year of that period, in one particular nation.
The division of Universal History into epochs, goes upon this idea, that a comprehensive picture is to be presented to the view of all the remarkable events and actions which were going forward upon the face of the earth at the same period of time.
Into the Ethers: Two Months in One-Sided Emails
Thus, M. But what are the advantages of this strict chronological order, that we must sacrifice so much to it? Order is beautiful, but it is no otherwise so than as subservient to utility; and a whimsical order confounds, instead of elucidating. I shall now briefly lay down that plan which I propose to follow in these Commentaries on Universal History.
This predominant nation I propose to exhibit to view as the principal object, whose history, as being in reality the most im.
The antecedent history of such subordinate nations will then be traced in a short retrospect of their own annals. Such collateral views, which figure only as episodes, I shall endeavor so to regulate, as that they shall have no hurtful effect in violating the unity of the principal piece. For the earliest periods of the history of the world, we have no records of equal authority with the Sacred Scriptures. They ascend to a period antecedent to the formation of regular states or communities, they are long prior. Sanchoniatho, supposed the most ancient of the profane writers, lived several years after the Trojan war B.
They were compiled, as Philo of Biblos informs us, from certain ancient Ammonmn records, which, amidst a great mass of fabulous and allegori cal matter, contained, as was supposed, some historical facts, which Sanchonia tho has extracted. Homer lived, as is believed, about a century later than Sanchoniatho.
Among the profane nations of antiquity, that which first makes a remarkable figure, and whose history at the same time has a claim to be regarded as authentic, is the states of Greece. But the Greeks were indebted for the greatest part of their knowledge to the Egyptians and Phrenicians. These, therefore, as relative to the leading nation, demand a por tion of our attention, and naturally precede, or pave the way to, the history of the Greeks.
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For a similar reason, the Assyrians, a rival nation, conquered by the Egyptians at one time, and con querors of them afterwards in their turn, though their early history is extremely dark and uncertain, require likewise a share in our observation. The Greeks then come to fill up the whole of the picture, and we endeavor to present an accurate delineation of their indepen dent states, the singular constitution of the two great republics of.
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Sparta and Athens, and the outlines of their history, down to the period of the Persian war, commenced by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, and prosecuted under his successors Xerxes and Ar taxerxes. This connection naturally induces a short retrospect to the preceding periods of the Persian history; the rise of that mon archy, the nature of its government, the manners of the people, and the singular religion of the ancient Persians, which subsisted without much adulteration for some thousands of years, and is still kept alive among a particular sect at this day.
The conclusion of the Persian war brings us back to the internal history of the states of Greece. The divisions of Greece engage our attention; the war of Peloponnesus; the corruption of the Spartan coqstitution introduced by Lysander; the glory of Thebes under Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The history of this illustrious people, the Greeks, furnishes a most ample field of reflection.
The policy and constitution of the different states, particularly the two great and rival republics of Athens and Lacedremon, demand our attention, as singularly illus trative of ancient manners, and the wonderful effects of habit and discipline on the nature of man. The causes which contributed to the. The literary genius of this people, their progress in philosophy, their eminence in the fine arts-in all of which departments they. Hitherto the leading object of attention is the history of Greece, to which, as may be observed, may be referred, by a natural con nection, that of all the other nations whose history is in those periods deserving of our acquaintance.
The conquest of Greece by the Romans entitles this latter nation to rank as the principal object in the subsequent delineation of ancient history. We next remark the causes of the subsequent change; the people uniting themselves to resist the tyranny and oppression of the patrician order; the advantages they gain by the creation of the popular magistrates; the continual encroachments they make on the powers and privileges of the higher order, till they obtain an equal capacity of enjoying all the offices and dignities of the commonwealth. We now view the gradual extension of the Roman arms; the conquest of all Italy; the origin of the wars with foreign nations; the progress of the Punic wars, which open a collateral view of the history of Carthage and of Sicily; we trace the success of the Ro man arms in Asia, Macedonia, and Greece, the opulence of the republic, from her conquests; and the corruption of her manners.
In fine, we. At this remarkable period, which naturally allows a pause in the historical detail, I shall devote some time to the examination of those particulars which are characteristic of the genius and national spirit of the Romans; their system of education; their laws; their literary character; their art of war; their knowledge in the arts and sciences; their private and public manners; and their predominant tastes and passions.
I shall close the remarks on the Roman history during the commonwealth, with some political reflections naturally arising from the subject, and illustrated by examples drawn both from that history, and from the preceding account of the states of Greece.
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We remark the decline of the ambitious character of the Romans, and their easy submission to the entire loss of civil liberty ; the progress of corruption ; the venality of the imperial dignity ; the mischievous though necessary policy of the emperors, who, to secure their own power, industriously abased the military spirit of the people ; the effect of this ruinous policy in inviting the barbarous nations to attack the frontiers of those extensive dorninions, which were now a languid and unwieldy body without internal vigor ; the weakness of the empire still further increased by its partition under Diocletian, and subdivision under his succes sors ; the triumph of Christianity, and the extinction of paganism in the age of Theodosius.
Thus, Ancient History will admit of a perspicuous delineation, by making our principal object of attention the predominant states of Greece and Rome, and incidentally touching on the most re markable parts of the history of the subordinate nations of anti quity, when connected with, or relative to, the principal object. In the delineation of Modern History, a similar plan will be pursued. The progress of the arms and of the religion of Mahomet, the rise and extent of the empire of the VOL.
The Franks, though settled in Gaul before this period, do not attract our notice till afterwards-when the foundation of the new empire of the west by Charlemagne naturally engages us to look back to the oriofo of their monarchy. The age of Charlemagne furnishes some interesting matters of inquiry with regard to laws, literature, manners, and government; and we shall endeavor to trace the origin of that remarkable poli cy, the source as has been justly said both of the stability and of the disorders of the kingdoms of Europe,-the feudal system.
The collateral objects of attention during this period are, the still venerable remains of the Roman empire in the East ; the beginning of the conquests and establishments of the Normans ; the foundation and progress of the temporal dominion of the church of Rome ; the separation of the Greek and Latin churches ; the affairs of Italy, and the conquest of Spain by the Saracens. As the history of our own country is of more importance to us than that of any other, the British history, as often as it is resumed, will be treated with greater amplitude thau the limits of our plan allow to other nations ; and while we note the progress of man ners, literature, and the arts, it shall be our endeavor, without prejudice, to mark those circumstances which indicate the progress of the constitution, its successive changes, and its advancement to that system of equal liberty under which we have the happiness of living.
While the history of Britain to the Conquest is the primary object of attention, a collateral view is taken of the state of the continental kingdoms of Europe. France, under the first sove reigns of the Capetian race, presents us with very little that is worthy of observation. The Normans carry their arms into Italy, and achieve the conquest of Sicily ; while the maritime states of Venice and Genoa, rising into consequence, become the commerJ cial agents of most of the European kingdoms.
The dissensions between the German emperors and the popes, and the gradual increase of the temporal authority of the see of Rome, are not unworthy of a particular attention. In the tyranny of William the Conqueror, and in the exorbitant weight of the crown during the reigns im mediately succeeding, we shall observe the causes of that spirit of union among the people, in their efforts to resist it, which procur ed for them those valuable charters, the foundation of our civil liberty.
Under the reign of the second Henry, we shall observe a most important accession of territory to the English crown, in the acquisition of the ancient and early civilized kingdom of Ire land. At this period, the whole of the nations of Europe, as if actu ated by one spirit, join in the Crusades, a series of fatal and des perate enterprises, but which form an important. We shall trace with some care those effects in the changes of territorial property in the feudal governments-in the immunities acquired by towns and boroughs, which had hitherto been tied down by a species of vassalage to the nobles-and in the aggrandizement of the maritime cities.
The moral as well as the political effects of those enterprises must be particularly noticed ; and we shall find a subject of entertaining disquisition in tracing the origin of chival ry, and its consequences in the introduction of romantic fiction. A short connected sketch of the European kingdoms, after the crusades, naturally follows ; in which a variety of interesting sub jects solicit our attention :-the rise of the House of Austria ; the decline of the feudal government in France by the introduction of the Third Estate to the national assemblies ; the establishment of the Swiss republics; the disorders in the popedom; and the me morable transactions in the council of Constance.
These shortfy considered, Britain again resumes her place as the leading object of attention. We consider the claim of right pre ferred by Edward III. The manners, laws, and government of the Turks, merit a share of our consideration.
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Returning westward, we see France in this age emancipating herself from the feudal bondage ; and the consequences of the pretensions made by her sovereigns to a part of Italy. These pretensions, opposed by Ferdinand of Spain, naturally call our attention to that quarter, where a most important political change had been operated in the union of the sovereignties of Arragon and Castile, and the fall of the Moorish kingdom of Granada.
Returning to Britain, while England is embroiled with the civil wars of York and Lancaster, we pursue the great outlines of her history down to the reign of Henry VIII. At this period, presenting a short delineation of the ancient constitu tion of the Scottish government, I shall endeavor to point out those political principles which regulated the conduct of the Scots with respect to their neighbors of England, and to foreign nations. The close of the fifteenth century is a most important era in modern history. The signal improvement of navigation by the Portuguese, who opened to Europe the commerce of the Indies the rapid advancement of literature from the discovery of the art of printing-and the revival of the fine arts-present a most ex tensive field of pleasing and instructive speculation.
We shall mark the effect of the Portuguese discoveries in awakening the spirit of enterprise, together with the industry, of all the European nations ; and shall here introduce a progressive account of the commerce of Europe down to this era, when it was vigorously and extensively promoted. The consideration of the progress of the fine arts we postpone to the succeeding age of Leo X. After a short survey of the northern states of Europe, which is necessary for preserving the unity of the picture, the capital object -of attention is the aggrandizement of the House of Austria, under Charles V.
The empire of India, highly important in modern times, the singularity of its political arrangements and national character, which have suffered no change since the age of Alexander; the political and moral history of the Persians; the revolutions operated on that immense continent by the Tartar successors of Gengis-Khan, are all worthy of a particular share of our consideration.
The estab lishment of the Tartar princes on the throne of China calls our attention to that extraordinary monarchy, which, till this period, was almost unknown to the nations of Europe. Returning to Europe, the object which, in the close of the six teenth century, first demands our notice, is the reign of Philip II. The constitution and government of the United Provinces merit here a brief delineation.
France now takes her turn, and holds the principal place in the picture during the turbulent and distracted reign of Francis II.