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Christian Eschatologies and the Religious Other

The use of the term, however, has been extended so as to include all that is taught in the Scriptures about the future life of the individual as well as the final destiny of the world. The reasons for the belief in a life after death are discussed in the article Immortality. The present article, after a brief glance at the conceptions of the future of the individual or the world found in other religions, will deal with the teaching of the Old and New Testaments, the Jewish and the Christian Church regarding the hereafter.

There is a bewildering variety in the views of the future life and world held by different peoples. The future life may be conceived as simply a continuation of the present life in its essential features, although under conditions more or less favourable. It may also be thought of as retributive, as a reversal of present conditions so that the miserable are comforted, and the prosperous laid low, or as a reward or punishment for good or evil desert here.

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Personal identity may be absorbed, as in the transmigration of souls, or it may even be denied, while the good or bad result of one life is held to determine the weal or woe of another. The scene of the future life may be thought of on earth, in some distant part of it, or above the earth, in the sky, sun, moon or stars, or beneath the earth.

The abodes of bliss and the places of torment may be distinguished, or one last dwelling-place may be affirmed for all the dead. Sometimes the good find their abiding home with the gods; sometimes a number of heavens of varying degrees of blessedness is recognized see F. Jevons, An Introduction to the History of Religion , chs. But deliverance from this cycle of existences, which is conceived as misery, is promised by means of speculation and asceticism. Denying the continuance of the soul, Buddhism affirmed a continuity of moral consequences Karma , each successive life being determined by the total moral result of the preceding life.

Its doctrine of salvation was a guide to, if not absolute non-existence, yet cessation of all consciousness of existence Nirvana. Later Buddhism has, however, a doctrine of many heavens and hells. Heaven and hell were very clearly distinguished, and each soul according to its works passed to the one or to the other. But this faith did not concern itself only with the future lot of the individual soul.


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It is not at all improbable that Jewish eschatology in its later developments was powerfully influenced by the Persian faith. The eschatology of the Old Testament is thus closely Old Testament. As the Old Testament revelation is concerned primarily with the elect nation, and only secondarily in the later writings with the individual persons composing it, we follow the order of importance as well as of time in dealing first with the people. The universalism which marks the promise to the seed of the woman Gen.

In the promise to Abraham xii. The people simply expected deliverance from their miseries and burdens by the intervention of Yahweh, because He had chosen Israel for His people. The prophets had an ethical conception of Yahweh; the sin of His own people and of other nations called for His intervention in judgment as the moral ruler of the world. But judgment they conceived as preparing for redemption. The day of the Lord is always an eschatological conception, as the term is applied to the final and universal judgment, and not to any less decisive intervention of God in the course of human history.

As the manifestation of God in grace as well as judgment, the day of the Lord will bring joy to Israel and even to the world. As a day of judgment it is accompanied by terrible convulsions of nature not to be taken figuratively, but probably intended literally by the prophets in accordance with their view of the absolute subordination of nature to the divine purpose for man.

It ushers in the Messianic age. Israel is restored to its own land, and to it the other nations are brought into subjugation, by force or persuasion. This hope is for the people on this earth though transfigured. To the individual it would seem at first only old age is promised Is.

The resurrection, which appears at first as a revival of the dead nation Hos. Only in Daniel xii. In dealing with the individual eschatology we must carefully distinguish the popular ideas regarding death and the hereafter which Israel shared with the other Semitic peoples, from the intuitions, inferences, aspirations evoked in the pious by the divine revelation itself. The former have not the moral significance or the religious value of the latter. The starting-point of the development was the common belief that the dead continued to exist in an unsubstantial mode of life, but cut off from fellowship with God and man; but faith left this far behind.

Sheol is the common abode of the righteous and the ungodly: life there is shadowy and feeble, but seems to continue in a wavering and dim reflection features of this life. A forward step had to be taken. Pious men, in fellowship with God, when they faced the fact of death, were led either to challenge its right, or to give a new meaning to it. Either there was a protest against death itself, and a demand for immortality Ps. This belief in individual immortality is expressed poetically and obscurely: it is later than the eschatology of the people.

It assumes the moral distinction of the righteous and the ungodly, and seeks a solution for the problem of the lack of harmony of present character and condition. Its deepest motive, however, is religious. The soul once in fellowship with God cannot even by death be separated from God.

It is in the apocryphal and apocalyptic literature of Judaism that the fullest development of eschatology can be traced. Four words may serve to express the difference of the doctrine of these writings and the teaching of the Old Testament. III, p. In the conception of the inevitable imperfection of God can be seen the sharpest expression of Manichean dualism, by which it is also distinguished from Zoroastrian dualism. At the same time it emphasizes that the final condition of existence is in no way a return to the creation.

Evil has not been exterminated but has been rendered powerless; good must suffer a permanent loss before it can return to the condition of original unity with the world of light of the father of greatness. Representations of the fate of the dead are traceable to a dualistic Manichean teaching in which the material body of the dead is subject to destruction and only the soul is redeemable, as a spark of godly light. From Manichean anthropology, on the other hand, it appears that the body will also be granted a particular, though ruinous spirituality.

These ideas might suggest a separate judgment for body and soul. As a result, it is not really known what the Manicheans did with the corpses of their dead. The evidence of an accidentally preserved Manichean epitaph from the area of Split in former Yugoslavia, which includes the name of the Manichean maiden Bassa Decret, p. Chinese witnesses ascribed to the Manicheans naked burial of the remains cf. Chavannes and Pelliot, pp. It must be concluded that this rather parsimonious treatment of the human body of man reflected the belief that it had become worthless cf.

Dodge, II, pp. Colpe, , pp.

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Accompanying them is a virgin, who resembles his soul. Many devils also appear before him, but the gods drive them away and lead the soul safely to the column of glory, to the moon, to primal man, to the mother of life who is enthroned in the sun , and to the paradise of light. As for his body, a massa damnata , the elements of the light still present in it are released before it is flung into hell. The fate of the damned, the unreformed child of this world, is equally clear. According to the description in the Fehrest , the transmigrating soul of the believer will be subjected to a kind of milder punishment.

Description of the tripartite fate of the dead in Parthian fragments M and Ma was also explained in an instructive parable Colditz.

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It simultaneously completes and adds precision to the information of the Fehrest. The light nous sends the soul to the judge of dead souls, where it is gloriously vindicated. On the reverse of the document, indeed, there are the words of the soul of a redeemed believer. It thus follows that the wise guide mentioned in the Fehrest was understood as the light nous. A Coptic hymn about the ascension of the soul of the righteous has recently turned up among the Kellis fragments J. Gardner in Orientalia 62, , pp. After the shedding of the body the soul of the dead must still appear before a judge about whom it is known from other sources that his throne is in space e.


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    • Immediately thereafter it ascends to the new paradise or descends to rebirth. Reception by the gods and demons and having to answer before the judge are, according to this text, the two main events that await man after death. Polotsky has referred Schmidt and Polotsky, pp. Polotsky, who investigated the different versions of these eschatological events, came to the conclusion that those in which both reception by the gods and the judgement of the dead appear are conflations.

    Verses of a Chinese hymn scroll Waldschmidt and Lentz, p. The light figure is an emanation of the light nous, and all other beings who receive the soul can also be interpreted as his creatures, so that it is finally this godhead who confronts the dead individually. Manichean eschatology has in common with the gnostic system the fundamental idea that only human souls can be redeemed. They descend into the world as particles of the sacred light; their ascent into the paradise of light after death is thus a return home. To this extent individual Manichean eschatology is far from the Zoroastrian conception and stamped with the gnostic view.