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He helps bring the Israelites out of slavery and leads them for the next four decades, until his death just before they enter the Land of Israel. In addition to being a.
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It seems to have originated with Freud who was certainly not an unbiased scholar in his desire to explain the origins of monotheism while denying Judaism as much uniqueness as possible Although his name certainly suggests an Egyptian origin, the first text which introduces the character of Moses clearly indicates he was the son of Hebrew parents. Whether one accepts the Book of Exodus as a reliable account or a cultural myth, one cannot change the text to fit one's personal theories which is basically what Freud does. At the same time, one cannot claim a "respectable date" for the Exodus when there is no historical record of the event outside of the manuscript of the Book of Exodus.

The events of the Exodus are traditionally assigned to the reign of Ramesses II based on the passage from Exodus where it states that the Hebrew slaves worked on the cities of Pithom and Rameses, two cities Ramesses II was known to have commissioned. Bauer, however, writes that a "respectable date" for the Exodus is BCE based on "a straightforward reading of I Kings which claims that years passed between the Exodus and the building of Solomon 's temple " Further complicating the dating of the event is that Exodus states that Moses was 80 years old when he first met with pharaoh but Moses' birthdate is given by Rabbinical Judaism as BCE making the BCE date impossible and there are plenty of other suggestions for possible birth years as well which also make the BCE date for the Exodus untenable.

Man versus myth: does it matter if the Moses story is based on fact? | Film | The Guardian

The problem with all these speculations stems from the attempt at reading the Bible as straight history instead of what it is: literature and, specifically, scripture. Ancient writers were not as concerned with facts as modern audiences are but were certainly interested in truth.

This is exemplified by the ancient genre known as Mesopotamian Naru Literature in which a figure, usually someone famous, plays an important role in a story which they did not actually participate in. In the famous story "The Curse of Akkad", Naram-Sin is portrayed as destroying the temple of the god Enlil when he receives no answer to his prayers.

There is no record of Naram-Sin doing any such thing while there is a great deal of evidence that he was a pious king who honored Enlil and the other gods. In this case, Naram-Sin would have been chosen as main character because of his famous name and used to convey a truth about humanity's relationship with the gods and, especially, a king's proper attitude toward the divine.

In the same way, the Book of Exodus and the other narratives concerning Moses tell a story of physical and spiritual liberation using the central character of Moses - a figure previously unknown in literature - who represents man's relationship with God. The writers of the biblical narratives go to great lengths to ground their stories in history, to show God working through actual events, in the same way the authors of Mesopotamian Naru Literature chose historical figures to convey their message.

Literature, scripture, does not need to be historically accurate to express a truth. Insistence on stories such as the Book of Exodus as historical denies a reader a wider experience of the text. To claim that the book must be historically true to be meaningful denies the power of the story to relay its message. Moses is a symbolic figure in the story while at the same time remaining a completely autonomous individual with a distinct personality.

Throughout the narrative Moses mediates between God and the people but is neither completely holy nor secular. He accepts his mandate from God reluctantly, constantly asks God why he was chosen and what he is supposed to be doing, and yet consistently tries to do God's will until he strikes the stone to produce water instead of speaking to it as God had instructed Numbers God had previously told Moses to strike a rock to get water Exodus but this time told him to speak to the rock.

Moses' actions here, ignoring God's instruction, prevent him from entering the promised land of Canaan. He is allowed to see the land from Mount Nebo but cannot lead his people once he has compromised his relationship with God. As with the rest of the narrative concerning Moses, this episode with the rock would have conveyed still conveys an important message about a believer's relationship with God: that one must trust in the divine in spite of one's own perceived knowledge or reliance on precedent and experience.

It does not finally matter whether a historical individual named Moses struck or spoke to a rock which then gave water; what matters is the truth of the individual's relationship with God that story conveys and how one can better understand one's own place in a divine plan. This is also seen in the Quran where Moses is known as Musa.

Musa is mentioned a number of times throughout the Quran as a righteous man, a prophet, and a sage. In the story of the Exodus in the Quran, Musa is always seen as a devout servant of Allah trusting in divine wisdom. In Surah , however, a story is related which shows how even a great and righteous man still has much to learn from God. One day, after Musa has delivered a particularly brilliant sermon, a member of the audience asks him if there is another on earth as learned in God's ways as he is and Musa answers no.

God Allah informs him that there will always be those who know more than one does in anything, especially regarding the divine. Musa asks Allah where he might find such a man and Allah gives him instructions on how to proceed. Following Allah's guidance, Musa finds Al-Khidr a representative of the divine and asks if he might follow him and learn all the knowledge he has of God.

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Al-Khidr answers that Musa would not understand anything he said or did and would have no patience; he then dismisses him. Musa pleads with him and Al-Khidr says, "If you would follow me, ask me not about anything until I mention it myself" and Musa agrees. As they travel together, Al-Khidr comes across a boat by the shore and kicks a hole in the bottom of it. Musa objects, crying out that the owners of the boat will not be able to earn their living now. Al-Khidr reminds him how he told him he could not be patient and dismisses him but Musa asks forgiveness and promises he will not judge or speak on anything else.

Shortly after the boat incident, though, they meet a young man on the road and Al-Khidr kills him. Musa strongly objects asking why such a handsome young man should be killed and Al-Khidr again reminds him of what he said before and tells him to leave now immediately. Musa again apologizes and is forgiven and the two travel on together. They reach a town where they ask for alms but are refused. On their way out of the town they pass a stone wall which is falling down and Al-Khidr stops and repairs it.

Musa is again confused and complains to his companion that at least he could have asked for wages in repairing the wall so they could get something to eat. At this, Al-Khidr tells Musa that he has breached their contract for the last time and now they must part ways. First, though, he explains: he scuttled the boat because there was a king at sea seizing every boat which put out by force and enslaving the crew.

The Exodus Decoded - Feature Documentary

If the good people who owned the boat had gone out, they would have met with a bad end. He killed the young man because he was evil and was going to bring great pain to his parents and community. Allah had already provided for another son to be born to the parents who would bring them and others joy instead of pain.

He rebuilt the wall because there was a treasure hidden beneath it which two orphans were supposed to inherit and, if the wall had crumbled any more, it would have been revealed to those who would take it. Al-Khidr ends by saying, "That is the interpretation of those things over which you showed no patience" and Musa understands the lesson. As with the biblical Moses, the Musa of the Quran is a completely developed character with all the strengths and weaknesses of any person.

In the Bible, Moses' humility is emphasized but he still has enough pride to trust in his own judgment in striking the rock rather than in listening to God. In the Quran his faith in himself and his own perceptions and judgments is questioned through his inability to trust in God's messenger. The story from Surah 18 teaches that God has a purpose which human beings, even one as devout and learned as Musa, cannot understand. Moses is seen as the Law Giver in the Christian writings who exemplifies a man of God.

To cite only one example, Moses features prominently in the famous story Jesus tells concerning Lazarus and the Rich Man in Luke In this story a poor, but pious, man named Lazarus and a rich man unnamed live in the same town.

Who Was Moses? Was He More than an Exodus Hero?

Lazarus suffers daily while the rich man has everything he could desire. They both die on the same day and the rich man wakes up in the underworld and sees Lazarus with Father Abraham in paradise. He begs Father Abraham to help him but is reminded that, on earth, he lived a life of ease while Lazarus suffered and now it is only just that the roles are reversed.

The rich man then asks Father Abraham to send someone to warn his family, as he has five brothers still living, and tell them how they should better live to avoid his fate. Abraham responds, "They have Moses and the prophets, let them listen to them. In this story Moses is presented as the paradigm of God's truth.

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If people would heed Moses' example and words then they could avoid separation from God in the afterlife. The story emphasizes how Moses' teachings provide everything anyone needs to know about how to live a good and decent life and enjoy an afterlife with God and how, if one is going to ignore Moses and the prophets and justify one's life choices, one would just as easily dismiss someone returning from the dead; the two are equally self-evident of God's desires for human piety and behavior.


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Moses is also featured in Jesus' transfiguation in Matthew , Mark , and Luke along with Elijah when God announces that Jesus is his son with whom he is well pleased. In these passages and others in the New Testament Moses is held up as an exemplar and representative of God's will.

Whether there was a religious leader in history named Moses who led his people and initiated a monotheistic understanding of the divine is unknown. Individual beliefs will dictate whether one accepts the historicity of Moses or regards him as a mythical figure more than any historical evidence - or the lack of it - ever will. Either way, the figure of Moses has cast a long shadow across the history of the world. The monotheism he is credited with introducing was further developed by the teachers of the Jewish faith which influenced the atmosphere in which Christianity was able to thrive which then led to the rise of Islam.

All three major monotheistic religions in the world today claim Moses as their own and he continues to serve as a model of humanity's relationship with the divine for people of many faiths around the world. Ancient History Encyclopedia Foundation is a non-profit organization. Mark, J. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Mark, Joshua J.

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Last modified September 28, Ancient History Encyclopedia, 28 Sep Written by Joshua J. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms. Mark published on 28 September Remove Ads Advertisement. The entire generation over 20 years of age will perish in the wilderness, and only the new generation—plus the two faithful spies, Joshua and Caleb —will be allowed to enter.

The people repent and even make an attempt to fight their way into the Promised Land according to the earlier plan, but God is now longer supporting them and they are defeated in battle. Moses then reveals several more regulations, including harsh laws such as "cutting off" anyone who sins by violating any part of the Law intentionally.


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Moses proves that this rule will be enforced strictly by ordering a man to be stoned to death for carrying wood on the sabbath. At this point a Levite leader named Korah confronts Moses, saying "you have gone too far. Why then do you set yourselves above the Lord's assembly?