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The book The Nature of Diversity: An Evolutionary Voyage of Discovery, Daniel R. Brooks and Deborah A. McLennan is published by University of Chicago.
Table of contents

Throughout, we emphasize although not exclusively trophic specialization in plant-herbivore systems, partly because this is the expertise of the authors but also because many important examples and theory have come from this area. The landmark paper for the field in the late 20th century is Futuyma and Moreno also see the historical overview in Berenbaum The study of specialization was growing rapidly in the s, and condensing around a set of core hypotheses e.

In subsequent decades, there have been many more review papers e. These overview papers continue to be important for setting research agendas in a diverse field e. For example, the field has often focused on specialization in trophic interactions to the exclusion of specialization in habitat or abiotic associations; and many workers in the field the present authors included have often focused on herbivorous insects e. Without doubt, examples from plants and other animals have been influential in a great many cases, as can be seen in many of the reviews cited here.

Berenbaum, M. Introduction to the symposium: On the evolution of specialization. The American Naturalist S78—S DOI: This paper provides a short introduction to the evolution of specialization with a succinct historical overview up to the mids. It focuses on trophic interactions and outlines some of the major difficulties in studying specialization, including how our human and cultural biases may influence how it is defined.

Bolnick, D. Fordyce, et al. The ecology of individuals: Incidence and implications of individual specialization. The American Naturalist This highly influential paper challenges the assumption that populations are normally homogeneous collections of individuals with identical degrees and types of specialization.

To the contrary, strong empirical evidence suggests that relatively generalized populations are often heterogeneous collections of more specialized individuals. The theoretical, ecological, evolutionary, and conservation implications of these insights are explored.

Background

Brooks, D. The nature of diversity: An evolutionary voyage of discovery. Chicago: Univ. This book gives an expansive and in-depth overview of the history, theory, methods, and empirical work related to the concept of ecological specialization. Forister, M. Dyer, M. Singer, J. Stireman, and J. Foundations of Ecology Leslie A.

Hope on Earth Paul R.


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Fragile Web Jonathan Silvertown. Messages from Islands Ilkka Hanski. All living things on earth—from individual species to entire ecosystems—have evolved through time, and evolution is the acknowledged framework of modern biology. Yet many areas of biology have moved from a focus on evolution to much narrower perspectives.


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McLennan argue that it is impossible to comprehend the nature of life on earth unless evolution—the history of organisms—is restored to a central position in research. They demonstrate how the phylogenetic approach can be integrated with ecological and behavioral studies to produce a richer and more complete picture of evolution. Clearly setting out the conceptual, methodological, and empirical foundations of their research program, Brooks and McLennan show how scientists can use it to unravel the evolutionary history of virtually any characteristic of any living thing, from behaviors to ecosystems.

They illustrate and test their approach with examples drawn from a wide variety of species and habitats.

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The taxonomic errors in this example are exceeded in the lumping of all bushbucks into a single polytypic species Tragelaphus scriptus , which comprises at least eight species in the scriptus and sylvaticus clades Groves and Grubb In summary, we concur with Adams that too many taxonomies still use species concepts that produce serious errors. Type 2 and 3 errors have weakened bovid taxonomy for far too long, but are now yielding to the Consilient Solution, resolving over a century of misrepresentation see below.

Most importantly, this entailed the long overdue application of the methods of phylogenetic systematics. This methodology tests the status of two or more populations against the null hypothesis that they are conspecific. The validity of taxonomic characters is the outcome of appraising intrapopulational variation, categorized by age-specific variation and sexual dimorphism. Taxonomic resolution is nevertheless contingent on available samples—ideally the hypodigm includes all known museum specimens. Ultimately, these analyses should encompass representative phylogeographic sampling of geographical variation.

An unfortunate habit of hostile critics is a failure to actually read what the subjects of their denigration have written. This is true, in the sense that it says why species are important in the grand scheme of things as the units of biodiversity , but it is not useful when it comes to actually identifying them and discriminating them from each other.

We are in need of an operational definition. It has been shown that such approaches lead to taxonomic inflation, as there is no lower limit to the resolution of the variability used to partition populations Avise ; Isaac et al. Characterization of the 11 allopatric species of klipspringers, Oreotragus spp. Moreover, a preliminary study revealed highly significant phylogeographical structure among 10 of the sampled lineages, but did not include the West African O.

Charles Darwin: history's most famous biologist

Here we extend our response to Criticism 2. Certainly, we know of few who have studied the available material in museum collections ; on the other hand, we do know of vast numbers who have contributed their own data sets while simply accepting the most recent available taxonomic statements usually dating from the middle of the 20th century , a reasonable position considering the absence of original material on which to base revisions of their own.

Evolution Lost: Nature's diversity under threat

We urge the IUCN to consider other opinions on bovid taxonomy before making any changes to their species list. Revealing phylogeographical studies have also contributed materially to our understanding of interrelationships among African bovids e. It is precisely these new analyses that inform revision of previous bovid classifications. This claim is simply wrong.

An Evolutionary Voyage of Discovery

The reclassification is underscored by new data , analyzed in the theoretical framework of phylogenetic systematics. Groves a described this methodology in detail, and it underscores strengths of the Consilient Solution. Dismissal of this investment reveals poor appreciation of taxonomic methodology, despite it being well established and described e.

In some cases we have been able to break new ground, and we hope that these examples will be examined by colleagues and, if found acceptable, used as templates for other studies [ Groves and Grubb , p. Yet, as diagnosed by de Queiroz , , their popularity and ironically, their epistemological weaknesses lies in three interleaved misconceptions in taxonomic thought and practice that reappear repeatedly throughout the voluminous species debate: i the mistake that one among many secondary species criteria qualifies as the universal concept of the species category; ii an inflated faith in one's favorite criterion or criteria results in overestimates of its epistemic capabilities and scope; such that iii it is under appreciated that some degree of epistemic parochialism afflicts every secondary species criterion, including the PSC.

Reproductive isolation has been and indeed still is by some ranked supreme as the sine qua non among criteria distinguishing a population as a species. It is really a proxy, if not a caricature, for suspected genetic discontinuity between closely related lineages see Bernardo Beyond practicable challenges to obtain scientific evidence to test the criterion, detailed arguments explain why reproductive isolation fails as the singular determinant of specieshood Cotterill a ; Padial et al.

Diversity begets diversity: host expansions and the diversification of plant-feeding insects

An equally common misconception occurs in applying genomic evidence to define the ontology of the species category e. The DFSC defines a species as a group of individuals reciprocally characterized by features that would have negative fitness effects in other groups and cannot be regularly exchanged between groups upon contact Hausdorf ; but it suffers from the same weaknesses as the BSC, GSC, and GeSC not least operationalism , and the DFSC is crippled by its attempt to avoid using the population to define the ontology of the species category.

Errors in bovid classification reveal how all these species criteria overlook important categories of species, not least morphologically similar lineages i. Adherence to reproductive isolation, reciprocal monophyly or population fitness as preeminent criteria for specieshood invariably overlooks lineages represented by allopatric populations cf.


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Nadler ; Cotterill a , ; Norris and Hull Populations that fail to meet strictures of a criterion only accepting purported species above its threshold are relegated to conspecific status, and frequently classified as subspecies or evolutionary significant units ESU. The Consilient Solution resolves this subjectivity.

It overcomes challenges encountered in classifying speciated lineages of different ages; each lineage has a heterogeneous history shaped through its unique context of tokogenic descent. In contrast, if ecotypes or subspecies do indeed exist as autonomous lineages—thus comprising a recognizable category in the economy of nature—then how do they differ from those lineages individuated into species? Their usage in any convenience category does not preclude their failure to fit them into classifications of individuated phyla. This question reveals why notions of subspecific entities do not correspond to real entities Cotterill a , b.

Some biologists might well wish the nature of biodiversity shaped by Earth history does not present such mordant challenges.