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Seminar paper from the year in the subject English Language and Literature Studies - Linguistics, grade: 2,7, University of Leipzig, language: English, abstract: (1) I ́m on my way to an engagement. (Merriam-Webster ) (2) I ́m on my.
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A pilot study of a diachronic journalistic corpus confirms that a coinage or new word formation which names or is associated with a major topical event will often not occur in isolation, but become part of a communal and cumulative activity. The paper will provide data centred on neologistic activity in UK journalism in mid-late , reflecting the response of the UK leadership to the national economic crisis, and its ripple effect through social institutions and the media.
The findings may serve to alert English language practitioners to the merits of examining the larger context of a neologism to discover further interrelated new words, and novel ways of representing lexical information. Author: Antoinette Renouf. Chapter price:. And always incomplete. Such a map only marks what needs explaining. We need something that explains why the substitutions in contrasting cases would have been different, by explaining why there is a difference of meaning in the first place. Yet, we do have some progress: we see that whatever makes meaning "fit" context is done to attain "acceptability" of the utterance, given its role in action.
Semantic contagion is contrastive adaptation. Semantic contagion is observable by the "method of difference" J. Mill : synchronically as differentiation of same-word meaning, and diachronically as change of same-word meaning triggered by the contrasting contexts. Contagion is the fit of words to one another like people crowded on a bench, with give and take; give is indifference; take is dominance.
Difference of meaning displays itself as comparative rearrangements of oppositions and affinities to other words, for instance, ones that might be substituted in the very sentence but to different effects: You could see an invisible point but not, in the same sense, an invisible cat. You can miss me with an ax, or with a sigh, or in the crowd.
Here is the nub of it. Unity of meaning is achieved if it can be. See linguistic force. To attain that, indifferent expressions adapt to dominant ones. But what is indifferent, and what is dominant is entirely relative, partly to how the words are used elsewhere, and partly to what the words are being used to DO both in an illocutionary and perlocutionary way.
For, as I mentioned, the equivalent of gravity is the force downward, from the perlocutionary role of the utterance in the context, upon the component words to adjust so as to perform that role. A word becomes dominant when pushed "to the edge of the bench", to the edge of unacceptability, and can "give" no more, say, because it has an antecedent or a syntagmatic link, or a tie to the subject matter, and so, "has its foot down". Thus, the equivalent of mass is entrenchment in a subject, anchoring to a case, or syntagmatic ties to another anchored expression. Words also adapt to avoid semantic uncompletability, and to avoid commonplace falsity or public offensiveness and various equivalents --the latter are defeasible conditions of unacceptability, the former, not.
Those are the other forces see below. It is resistance, under the linguistic forces [ 1 to make illocutionary sense in the perlocutionary roles of the utterance in action; 2 to avoid a uncompletability, b commonplace falsehood, and c other kinds of unacceptability], that makes a word dominant in an utterance. Some words resist adjustment to a context when others do not; those that resist, dominate.
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Dominance is the resistance of the, relatively, definite units whether anchored or entrenched to concatenating unacceptably, as long as something else can "give" so as to avoid unacceptability. That makes dominance relative to other words and to context. Being dominated comes down to "giving up" affinities and oppositions to other words in this context, as compared with various other contexts to compose an acceptable utterance. Notice, in an arbitrarily chosen utterance, by itself, neither dominance nor adjustment is discernable.
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The dominant words fit the context without adaptation. Adaptation is relative. No word is always dominated, or always dominates. They all get their turns. Dominance is relative, like physical mass or size , depending on what is in the neighborhood, the discourse environment. The semantic cosmos is just a distribution of neighborhoods. There is no absolute semantic mass. The relative mass of an expression is a function of whether it tends to be indifferent to other words or intransigent. That depends on the neighborhoods it frequents and upon its entrenchment in a subject or its anchoring to benchmark cases of what it is.
Where as, some of these, "She sold her Why isn't "cut" dominated in "She cut" her Here is clear dominance: he commanded No adaptation of "cut" is needed for the completed sentence to make a definite and acceptable sense in context. In other words, when the same sense will do, nothing dominates a common word. This is the principle of inertia, that words recur in the same meaning unless something makes a difference in meaning for any n-tuple of recurrences.
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What is Linguistic General Relativity? Every meaning element depends synchronically on every other. And the "value" of a meaning-element [its particular meaning] depends on what it is combined with and in what perlocutionary role. Yet, effects diminish with distance. So, degree of dependence, depends. Word meaning in natural language is dynamically organized, like the distribution of matter in space-time. Everything affects everything else semantically, with the "biggest" effects being caused by the, relatively, most massive lexical items on "less" massive word that appear frequently nearby, utility words.
Over time, meaning seems to become "more" diversely organized because adaptation tends to increase expressive variety, [though, nonsense is a byproduct of semantic contagion too. Although there are synchronic slices of discourse even very big ones , the language la language does not exist atemporally. English exists only in what was said and written during seven centuries, or so. Nevertheless, slices, without regard for time order, reveal explanatory structures [that I call software], the way cell-slices do to a cell biologist; some of the structures are localized geographically, historically, and by social class; but there are underlying universal features; for example, the adaptation of a "utility" word to categorically contrasting completion words, as happens with "used," in "He used Diachronically, in the semantic, as well as the physical universe, mass determines space and space determines motion -- where "mass" is "dominance" and "space" is "locus of semantic adaptation" and "motion" is actual adaptation.
Besides the two basic principles of linguistic inertia, and universal linguistic force, there are four component forces, parallelling 1 gravity --the force on component words to achieve the meaning required by the utterance's role in action , 2 electro-magnetic force --the force of semantic inclusions, the way "man" involves "male" , 3 weak force --the force of the defeasible unacceptabilities, like commonplace falsehood, impropriety, and public offense , and 4 strong force, like the force binding the nucleus of an atom, the binding force of combined semantic and syntagmatic ties within discourse.
The overall idea is that to fit one context, say, "He used English," the word "used" adds or drops no more of its relations to other words than exactly those needed to differentiate its meaning from its fit in "He used patience," and vice versa, and so on, for any other occurrence of "used", in a complete context. There is no absolute, only relative semantic mass, indicated by how much contextual modification, especially by explicit phrases, it takes to dominate an expression so that it adapts in meaning to fit the context.
That varies with context and with completion expression. Thus semantic mass is equivalent to resistance potential. Overall, 1 grammatically well-formed expressions adapt their words to one another to "fit" the action to which the talk belongs, and 2 HOW the "fit" is achieved varies, though under detectable forces. That IS general semantic relativity "mass determines space; space determines motion". Diachronically, relativity, displayed as adaptations, expands expressive capacity.
Remember Synonym
Poetry not only shows it up, it shows it off. The principle of inertia is observable, "there is no difference of word meaning without something that makes a difference of meaning". Construct several sentence frames: "She shot In "She shot pictures, rapids and rattlers and rustlers", something has to cancel, turn off and turn on, the affinities and oppositions of "shot" to other words in other contexts. That requires several other elements, the first and most important being, resistance to unacceptability, universal linguistic force, [namely that "grammatically well-formed sentences make what sense they can".
The logical consequence of universal force is linguistic gravity, a constant causation exerted downward from the meaning of the whole from its role in our actions upon the meanings of the parts, to adjust to one another. Linguistic force manifests itself when the same sense as any arbitrarily given one will result in unacceptability for failure of semantic unity or for certain defeasible reasons. In such a case, each element of the expression is under "pressure" to adjust. Comparatively, the subdominant word adapts. This is universal: utterances avoid unacceptability unless forced.
So the meaning of "dropped" and "burned" and "cut" adjusts selectively, in the examples I gave earlier, just as "shot" does in the examples just above. Why does the contrast of "pictures", "rapids", and "rustlers" make a difference of meaning in another word "shot"? Of course, it doesn't automatically make a difference; it depends upon the order in which the sentences occur.
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Because the differential adjustment of "shot" avoids unacceptable concatenations, which cannot be avoided by any available adjustment of the other words; "failure of semantic unity" incongruity in the sense of "failure of meaning" is the most powerful of the forms of unacceptability. There is weak force, as I said: "words resist concatenating to commonplace falsehoods, public offense, etc. Local resistance to commonplace falsehoods, offense, impropriety, stupidity, silly puns,. It tends to stabilize meaning, eliminating double meanings, for instance.
Neology: from word to register
See note For "weak force" builds craft-talk directly out of neologisms, etymological derivatives, verbal inventions, and utility adaptations. The force is called "weak" because the resistance to commonplace falsehood, or pointlessness, is easily defeated. So, for example, "everything is garbage" would not be taken literally; yet, it could quite easily be meant literally by someone who says to the garbageman that everything on the curb should be taken away. Further, there is a quantum principle.
For instance, consider figurative discourse. Relatively to a given, non-figurative statement with the required words, any figure of speech can be generated by a short sequence of steps, by changing the dominant words in the sentence frame until the figurative sense is produced. There is a discussion of figurative discourse in Ch. There is a method of hypothetical construction offered by which one can confirm, or disconfirm, this hypothesis. Adjustment is quantized; it consists in the comparative addition or loss, a whole step at a time or several in a clump of affinity or opposition to other words.
An example of this is the fact noted earlier that, among color words that apply nowadays to people, "brown" is not opposed to "black", and "white" has only "black", "yellow", "red" and a few others as contraries. The list, however, is quite different for the skin tones of cosmetics and different again for the skin colors used by painters.
Since adjustments are by whole steps [usually taken in clumps], of giving up opposition or affinity, they are digitalized, rather than continuous. Adjustments ratchet, rather than glide, even though the semantic fit seems as seamless as a movie.