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Table of contents

Thus, the individual fatty acid profiles tend to be more instructive than broad lipid classifications with respect to subsequent impacts on serum cholesterol, and should therefore be considered when making dietary recommendations for the prevention of CVD. Clearly the lipid hypothesis has had broad sweeping impacts; not only on the way we eat, but also on the way food is produced on-farm.

Indeed, changes in animal breeding and genetics have resulted in an overall leaner beef product[ 10 ]. Preliminary examination of diets containing today's leaner beef has shown a reduction in serum cholesterol, provided that beef consumption is limited to a three ounce portion devoid of all external fat [ 11 ]. O'Dea's work was the first of several studies to show today's leaner beef products can reduce plasma LDL concentrations in both normal and hyper-cholesterolemic subjects, theoretically reducing risk of CVD [ 12 — 15 ].

Beyond changes in genetics, some producers have also altered their feeding practices whereby reducing or eliminating grain from the ruminant diet, producing a product referred to as "grass-fed" or "grass-finished". Historically, most of the beef produced until the 's was from cattle finished on grass. During the 's, considerable research was done to improve the efficiency of beef production, giving birth to the feedlot industry where high energy grains are fed to cattle as means to decrease days on feed and improve marbling intramuscular fat: IMF.

In addition, U.

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However, changes in consumer demand, coupled with new research on the effect of feed on nutrient content, have a number of producers returning to the pastoral approach to beef production despite the inherent inefficiencies. Research spanning three decades suggests that grass-only diets can significantly alter the fatty acid composition and improve the overall antioxidant content of beef. It is the intent of this review, to synthesize and summarize the information currently available to substantiate an enhanced nutrient claim for grass-fed beef products as well as to discuss the effects these specific nutrients have on human health.

Red meat, regardless of feeding regimen, is nutrient dense and regarded as an important source of essential amino acids, vitamins A, B 6 , B 12 , D, E, and minerals, including iron, zinc and selenium [ 17 , 18 ]. Along with these important nutrients, meat consumers also ingest a number of fats which are an important source of energy and facilitate the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins including A, D, E and K.

Stearic acid has been shown to have no net impact on serum cholesterol concentrations in humans[ 17 , 19 ]. Be that as it may, changes in finishing diets of conventional cattle can alter the lipid profile in such a way as to improve upon this nutritional package. Although there are genetic, age related and gender differences among the various meat producing species with respect to lipid profiles and ratios, the effect of animal nutrition is quite significant [ 22 ].

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Regardless of the genetic makeup, gender, age, species or geographic location, direct contrasts between grass and grain rations consistently demonstrate significant differences in the overall fatty acid profile and antioxidant content found in the lipid depots and body tissues [ 22 — 24 ]. Table 1 summarizes the saturated fatty acid analysis for a number of studies whose objectives were to contrast the lipid profiles of cattle fed either a grain or grass diets [ 25 — 31 ]. This table is limited to those studies utilizing the longissimus dorsi loin eye , thereby standardizing the contrasts to similar cuts within the carcass and limits the comparisons to cattle between 20 and 30 months of age.

Unfortunately, not all studies report data in similar units of measure i. Table 1 reports that grass finished cattle are typically lower in total fat as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Interestingly, there is no consistent difference in total SFA content between these two feeding regimens. Those SFA's considered to be more detrimental to serum cholesterol levels, i.

Grass finished meat contains elevated concentrations of stearic acid C , the only saturated fatty acid with a net neutral impact on serum cholesterol. Thus, grass finished beef tends to produce a more favorable SFA composition although little is known of how grass-finished beef would ultimately impact serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic patients as compared to a grain-fed beef.

Like SFA intake, dietary cholesterol consumption has also become an important issue to consumers. Studies have shown that breed, nutrition and sex do not affect the cholesterol concentration of bovine skeletal muscle, rather cholesterol content is highly correlated to IMF concentrations[ 34 ]. As IMF levels rise, so goes cholesterol concentrations per gram of tissue [ 35 ].

Because pasture raised beef is lower in overall fat [ 24 — 27 , 30 ], particularly with respect to marbling or IMF [ 26 , 36 ], it would seem to follow that grass-finished beef would be lower in overall cholesterol content although the data is very limited. Garcia et al report A number of epidemiological studies comparing disease rates in different countries have suggested an inverse association between MUFA intake and mortality rates to CVD [ 3 , 21 ].

Even so, grass-fed beef provides a higher concentration of TVA C t 11 , an important MUFA for de novo synthesis of conjugated linoleic acid CLA: C c -9, t , a potent anti-carcinogen that is synthesized within the body tissues [ 37 ]. Specific information relative to the health benefits of CLA and its biochemistry will be detailed later. The important polyunsaturated fatty acids PUFAs in conventional beef are linoleic acid C , alpha-linolenic acid C , described as the essential FAs, and the long-chain fatty acids including arachidonic acid C , eicosapentaenoic acid C , docosanpetaenoic acid C and docosahexaenoic acid C [ 38 ].

The significance of nutrition on fatty acid composition is clearly demonstrated when profiles are examined by omega 6 n-6 and omega 3 n-3 families. Table 2 shows no significant change to the overall concentration of n-6 FAs between feeding regimens, although grass-fed beef consistently shows a higher concentrations of n-3 FAs as compared to grain-fed contemporaries, creating a more favorable nn-3 ratio.

There are a number of studies that report positive effects of improved n-3 intake on CVD and other health related issues discussed in more detail in the next section. The human body cannot synthesize essential fatty acids, yet they are critical to human health; for this reason, EFAs must be obtained from food. Likewise, LA is the parent fatty acid in the omega-6 pathway. Omega-3 n-3 and omega-6 n-6 fatty acids are two separate distinct families, yet they are synthesized by some of the same enzymes; specifically, deltadesaturase and deltadesaturase.

Excess of one family of FAs can interfere with the metabolism of the other, reducing its incorporation into tissue lipids and altering their overall biological effects [ 39 ]. Figure 1 depicts a schematic of n-6 and n-3 metabolism and elongation within the body [ 40 ]. Adapted from Simopoulos et al. A healthy diet should consist of roughly one to four times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids. The typical American diet tends to contain 11 to 30 times more omega -6 fatty acids than omega -3, a phenomenon that has been hypothesized as a significant factor in the rising rate of inflammatory disorders in the United States[ 40 ].

Table 2 shows significant differences in nn-3 ratios between grass-fed and grain-fed beef, with and overall average of 1. The omega-3 fatty acids were first discovered in the early 's when Danish physicians observed that Greenland Eskimos had an exceptionally low incidence of heart disease and arthritis despite the fact that they consumed a diet high in fat.

These early studies established fish as a rich source of n-3 fatty acids.

More recent research has established that EPA and DHA play a crucial role in the prevention of atherosclerosis, heart attack, depression and cancer [ 40 , 42 ]. In addition, omega-3 consumption reduced the inflammation caused by rheumatoid arthritis [ 43 , 44 ]. The human brain has a high requirement for DHA; low DHA levels have been linked to low brain serotonin levels, which are connected to an increased tendency for depression and suicide.

Several studies have established a correlation between low levels of omega -3 fatty acids and depression. High consumption of omega-3 FAs is typically associated with a lower incidence of depression, a decreased prevalence of age-related memory loss and a lower risk of developing Alzheimer's disease [ 45 — 51 ]. Although seafood is the major dietary source of n-3 fatty acids, a recent fatty acid intake survey indicated that red meat also serves as a significant source of n-3 fatty acids for some populations [ 52 ]. Sinclair and co-workers were the first to show that beef consumption increased serum concentrations of a number of n-3 fatty acids including, EPA, DPA and DHA in humans [ 40 ].

Likewise, there are a number of studies that have been conducted with livestock which report similar findings, i. For instance, cattle fed primarily grass significantly increased the omega-3 content of the meat and also produced a more favorable omega-6 to omega-3 ratio than grain-fed beef [ 46 , 55 — 57 ].

Table 2 shows the effect of ration on polyunsaturated fatty acid composition from a number of recent studies that contrast grass-based rations to conventional grain feeding regimens [ 24 — 28 , 30 , 31 ]. Grass-based diets resulted in significantly higher levels of omega-3 within the lipid fraction of the meat, while omega-6 levels were left unchanged.

In fact, as the concentration of grain is increased in the grass-based diet, the concentration of n-3 FAs decreases in a linear fashion.

Grass-finished beef consistently produces a higher concentration of n-3 FAs without effecting n-6 FA content , resulting in a more favorable nn-3 ratio. The amount of total lipid fat found in a serving of meat is highly dependent upon the feeding regimen as demonstrated in Tables 1 and 2.

Fat will also vary by cut, as not all locations of the carcass will deposit fat to the same degree. Genetics also play a role in lipid metabolism creating significant breed effects. Even so, the effect of feeding regimen is a very powerful determinant of fatty acid composition. Conjugated linoleic acids make up a group of polyunsaturated FAs found in meat and milk from ruminant animals and exist as a general mixture of conjugated isomers of LA.

Grain consumption decreases rumen pH, reducing B. Rumen pH may help to explain the apparent differences in CLA content between grain and grass-finished meat products see Table 2. De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C vaccenic acid. Adapted from Bauman et al.


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Natural augmentation of CLA c 9 t 11 and TVA within the lipid fraction of beef products can be accomplished through diets rich in grass and lush green forages. While precursors can be found in both grains and lush green forages, grass-fed ruminant species have been shown to produce 2 to 3 times more CLA than ruminants fed in confinement on high grain diets, largely due to a more favorable rumen pH [ 34 , 56 , 57 , 67 ] see Table 2.

The impact of feeding practices becomes even more evident in light of recent reports from Canada which suggests a shift in the predominate trans C isomer in grain-fed beef. Over the past two decades numerous studies have shown significant health benefits attributable to the actions of CLA, as demonstrated by experimental animal models, including actions to reduce carcinogenesis, atherosclerosis, and onset of diabetes [ 70 — 72 ].

Conjugated linoleic acid has also been reported to modulate body composition by reducing the accumulation of adipose tissue in a variety of species including mice, rats, pigs, and now humans [ 73 — 76 ]. A number of excellent reviews on CLA and human health can be found in the literature [ 61 , 82 — 84 ]. Optimal dietary intake remains to be established for CLA. Ha et al. Ritzenthaler et al. Obviously, all these values represent rough estimates and are mainly based on extrapolated animal data. What is clear is that we as a population do not consume enough CLA in our diets to have a significant impact on cancer prevention or suppression.

Carotenoids are a family of compounds that are synthesized by higher plants as natural plant pigments. Xanthophylls, carotene and lycopene are responsible for yellow, orange and red coloring, respectively. Ruminants on high forage rations pass a portion of the ingested carotenoids into the milk and body fat in a manner that has yet to be fully elucidated. Cattle produced under extensive grass-based production systems generally have carcass fat which is more yellow than their concentrate-fed counterparts caused by carotenoids from the lush green forages. Although yellow carcass fat is negatively regarded in many countries around the world, it is also associated with a healthier fatty acid profile and a higher antioxidant content [ 89 ].

Plant species, harvest methods, and season, all have significant impacts on the carotenoid content of forage. Further, significant seasonal shifts occur in carotenoid content owing to the seasonal nature of plant growth. Specifically, it is responsible for maintaining the surface lining of the eyes and also the lining of the respiratory, urinary, and intestinal tracts. The overall integrity of skin and mucous membranes is maintained by vitamin A, creating a barrier to bacterial and viral infection [ 15 , 92 ]. In addition, vitamin A is involved in the regulation of immune function by supporting the production and function of white blood cells [ 12 , 13 ].

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The effects of grass feeding on beta-carotene content of beef was described by Descalzo et al. Concentrations were 0. Antioxidants such as vitamin E protect cells against the effects of free radicals. Free radicals are potentially damaging by-products of metabolism that may contribute to the development of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease.

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Preliminary research shows vitamin E supplementation may help prevent or delay coronary heart disease [ — ]. Vitamin E may also block the formation of nitrosamines, which are carcinogens formed in the stomach from nitrates consumed in the diet. It may also protect against the development of cancers by enhancing immune function [ ]. In addition to the cancer fighting effects, there are some observational studies that found lens clarity a diagnostic tool for cataracts was better in patients who regularly used vitamin E [ , ].