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integrates existing concepts into a memory oriented educational framework. Therefore, Introduction. Adult education с particularly Protestant adult education с can be compared with a human university, adult education centers, academies, training on the job and in parishes); such diversity also .. Go and do likewise.
Table of contents
Their existence is an indication that people seek to learn from numerous sources. Additional learning facilities are provided by the media. Groombridge ff. As long as it is recognized that what is seen and heard is actually a distillation of reality through the media, then these claims are valid.
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Travel is another medium through which individuals learn, so that the European Union has introduced many opportunities for educators to get to know and understand how colleagues in other countries work, through Erasmus, Grundtvig, Socrates and other programmes. In addition, many adult education institutions, schools and colleges organize visits and study tours both in the United Kingdom and abroad as part of their programme of learning activities.
The arts, museums, libraries, radio and television all cater, in one way or another, for something in human beings which drives them to learn more about the universe in which they live and about other people with whom they inhabit this planet. Not only have technological innovations led to unemployment but recent monetarist policies in Western Europe, especially the United Kingdom, and in the United States have resulted in increased unemployment and also in a gradual lowering of the age of retirement.
Indeed, it could well be argued that the capitalist system which needs a lean work This process has resulted in more leisure time, even though it is enforced and often unwanted. In a society dominated by a work ethic, in which it has been regarded as good to work but evil to be idle, leisure has always been regarded as a mixed blessing. Consequently, it is being recognized that values about leisure will have to adapt or they will be changed, which, incidentally, illustrates a way by which values respond to social pressure.
But some people have to learn how to use their leisure time and Parker drew a useful distinction between education for leisure and education as leisure. That some people have to learn how to use this leisure may appear to be surprising initially, but it is less surprising when it is realized that many who are now entering enforced unemployment at an earlier stage of their lives than they originally anticipated were brought up with the expectation that they would work until they approached the end of their lives and that not to work was regarded as malingering.
Hence, the expectation of having to work for the greater part of their lives has meant that many people have not really learned how to use non-work time as constructively as they might.
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One aspect of preparation for unemployment that has occurred has been pre-retirement education see Coleman, ; Glendenning and Percy, , inter alia; Jarvis, , b in which programme time is frequently devoted to the use of leisure. Indeed, there is now a Pre-Retirement Association of Great Britain which devotes much of its time to mid-life planning, pre-retirement education and other aspects of education for retirement. By contrast, education as leisure has traditionally been undertaken by more educated people because many, especially those from the working classes who were unsuccessful during their initial education, have tended to shun the formal provision of leisure time education once they had completed their initial and, perhaps, their vocational education.
The history of liberal adult education is a long and honourable one being enshrined in the university extension movement and other types of provision, such as the Workers Educational Association, and the demand for it appears to be unabating ACACE, b. This may be demonstrated by the many people who attend the university extension classes, local education authority classes, and courses organized by other commercial and voluntary Similar movements exist in many parts of the world Rumble and Harry, and in America with its Free Universities movement Draves, and the provision of part-time degree education throughout the lifespan.
Many of these new educational movements have already shown that leisure time education does not necessarily result in any lowering of academic standards; indeed, the academic standards may be lifted in some instances. Hence it is more than hobby-type education, which is often belittled. It should be seen as a highly distinctive form of leisure. Yet if learning is life enriching, as it is for many people, then the elderly have as much right as anyone else to enjoy the fruits of learning.
Dewey wrote that since life means growth, a living creature lives as truly and positively at one stage as another, with the same intrinsic fullness and the same absolute claims.
Hence education means the enterprise of supplying the conditions which insure growth, or adequacy of life, irrespective of age. Dewey, Indeed, people of all ages are realizing that they either want, or need, to continue learning all their lives. Some of these also began to offer fresh horizons for women who felt that they had been disadvantaged earlier in their lives see Hutchinson and Hutchinson, In addition, there has been a growth in courses teaching people the skills of studying, such as Richardson and Gibbs There is considerable evidence that a large proportion of the British population have returned to study.
Sargant et al. It should be noted that the latter statistic refers to learning activities rather than courses of study. In addition, she found that a further 10 per cent were engaged in self-directed learning, which suggested that over one-third of the adult population are undertaking some form of planned learning exercises.
Obtaining accurate statistics about the participation rate of adults in education is a very complicated undertaking and, therefore, in the end an estimate is all that may be obtained. The same is true in the United States. For instance, Johnstone and Rivera calculated that between June and June there were at least 2,, adults in full-time education, 17,, in adult classes and some 8,, undertaking self-education, but they recognized that these totals were no more than approximations.
They had discovered millions of lifelong learners who were not using the educational services, people who wanted to learn and understand under their own direction. Not long after Johnstone and Rivera published their monumental study another seminal research report highlighting the lifelong learner appeared.
Tough was not concerned merely to count the odd hours of enquiry in Tough, and his fellow researchers, interviewed 66 people in depth in their initial research and discovered that all but one of them had undertaken at least one learning project during the year prior to the interview, that the median number of projects was eight and that the mean time spent on learning projects was hours. A participation rate of 98 per cent was discovered — far higher than Johnstone and Rivera would have anticipated from their research.
But Tough and his colleagues employed a more intensive interview technique than Johnstone and Rivera and this method of research was one reason for the higher statistics. Additionally, Tough acknowledged that his sample was not random, so that it is not technically correct to claim that 98 per cent of the population of Canada, nor even of Ontario where the research was conducted , undertake at least one seven-hour learning project per annum. Indeed, his statistics may be a considerable overestimation, although they might actually be correct, but they do suggest that people have a need to learn, know and understand.
Child suggested that the need to know comes at the top of the hierarchy, but in the third edition of his text he has adapted this slightly and omitted the highest stratum. Maslow certainly considered the need to know but claimed that knowledge has a certain ambiguity about it, specifying that in most individuals there is both a need to know and a fear of knowing. However, the fear of knowing may be the result of social experiences rather than being basic to the person. The need to know may be fundamental, even if the consequences of that knowledge may be dangerous. Does the need to know actually occur at the apex of the hierarchy?
Is it even a hierarchy? Houston et al. If the Child may be correct when he suggested that the intellectual pursuit of knowledge is a higher order need, but this may only be true for the academic pursuit of knowledge. But the fact that Tough has suggested that many people undertake learning projects implies that the need to learn may be quite fundamental to the human being.
Indeed, this need may be better understood as being one to learn rather than to know and understand since individuals need to learn in order to comprehend the world in which they live and to adapt themselves to it. Elsewhere Jarvis, c—23 this theme has been expanded a little in the context of the religious development of the individual.
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It is suggested that the processes of the formation of the self and of beginning to make sense of the objective world occur simultaneously during early childhood. Prior to the construction of this universe of meaning, however, it must be recognized that every individual poses many questions of meaning. Nearly every parent has experienced that period during which their child persistently asks questions about every aspect of its experience. Answers, however, demand different types of knowledge: empirical, rational, pragmatic, belief, and so on.
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As the questions are answered children acquire a body of knowledge, so the learning need receives some satisfaction. During early childhood these questions are overt and the learning experience explicit. When children attend school, however, teachers and other adults sometimes attempt to provide information that bears little or no relation to the questions being posed at that time and, therefore, the knowledge being transmitted may appear irrelevant to the recipient.
Unless the teacher is able to demonstrate its relevance and create a questioning attitude there may be little internal stimulus to learn what is being transmitted. This does not mean that children do not want or need to learn, only that they may not want to learn what is being transmitted. The adult appears to ask fewer questions. But during periods of rapid social change the questioning process is evoked.
During traumatic experiences the accepted internalized body of knowledge may not be able to cope with the situation and the questioning process is reactivated. It is this disjuncture that underlies the need to learn and this has been developed much more thoroughly in other works Jarvis, , While the need to learn occurs continuously throughout most of the lifespan, the religious questions are raised intermittently throughout life, so that the process is never really complete. Perhaps, as Tough has implied, questions are asked much more frequently than adult educators have generally assumed, so that the learning need is ever prevalent.
Child suggested that understanding and knowledge should be added to the pinnacle of the This is clearly not a hierarchy but a process through which a child passes during early maturation. All the needs exist in individuals and, wherever possible, human beings seek to satisfy them. Hence the provision of education throughout the whole of the lifespan may help the learner to satisfy a basic human need, especially in a rapidly changing world in which the individual may be posing many questions of meaning.
It might be objected that if human beings have a basic need to learn, there is no need to provide education since they will seek to satisfy their learning needs in any case. However, this argument contains no substance because education, the provision of libraries, museums, and so on, have all emerged as means by which individuals may learn answers to their questions of meaning.
Summary In this chapter it has been argued that the provision of education for adults is necessary because of the nature of contemporary society and the nature of humanity. It was suggested that there are various features in society that have to be taken into consideration, including: globalization and the knowledge society resulting in the need for individuals working with such knowledge to keep abreast of developments; an increase in the amount of leisure time and an increasing number of people living into old age; the need to work towards a democratic society.
Additionally, it has been suggested that human beings have a basic need to learn and that they are lifelong learners and that the provision of education across the lifespan is one way by which people can satisfy this basic need. However, it was recognized at the outset that these two aspects are not discrete entities but that there is an inter-relationship between the individual and society, and that this division is made only for ease of analysis. One approach without the other is to present a false picture of reality, so a rationale for the provision of education for adults must always contain a combination of both sets of reasons proposed here.
The chapter has nine sections. While the chapter title implies something of a historical sequence, it should more accurately be read as a conceptual continuum. In addition, it will become clear that the same terms are employed in different ways, while, on occasions, different terms are used to convey the same meaning!
This clearly demonstrates the idea that education was regarded as occurring only during the formative years and that when social maturity,. This approach may be found in many early writers on the subject of education. But by the beginning of the twentieth century, it was becoming more apparent in the West that an intergenerational perspective was not adequate to describe the educational process. Today, formal education both refers to institutionalized learning and a teaching method — to the structure and the process.
In addition, it is the term most likely to be used to convey the same idea is initial education. This has been described as: going to school, including nursery school, but it could go on full or part-time into the mids. Their intention was to distinguish this initial formal system from other forms of lifelong education occurring throughout the world. Such a model of education is also implicit in the writings of the wellknown English philosopher of education, R. Peters, who made a clear distinction between education and the educated man a term which Peters used without gender bias.
Peters regarded being educated as a state that individuals achieve, whilst education is a family of processes that lead to this state. However, it might be advantageous to enquire whether the educated person is an end-state without being the end of the journey.
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