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Road traffic is carried by the pavement, which in engineering terms is a horizontal . for a major road or as little as 5 years for a minor street carrying local traffic).
Table of contents

Please click here to download. Whoops - look like you forgot to fill out required form elements! Please scroll up and try again. Guide Navigation. Global Street Design Guide. Explore by Chapter. Defining Streets. Shaping Streets. Measuring and Evaluating Streets. Designing Streets for Great Cities. Designing Streets for Place. At its zenith in ad this road and its western connections over the Roman system constituted the longest road on Earth.

In Asia the road passed through Samarkand to the region of Fergana, where, near the city of Osh, a stone tower marked the symbolic watershed between East and West. From Fergana the road traversed the valley between the Tien Shan and Kunlun Mountains through Kashgar, where it divided and skirted both sides of the Takla Makan Desert to join again at Yuanquan. From Kashgar, trade routes to the south passed over the mountains to the great trading centre of Bactria and to northern Kashmir. But the system of road transport was dependent on the Roman, Chinese, and Mauryan empires, and, as these great empires declined in the early Christian era, the trade routes became routes of invasion.

Except in the Byzantine Empire , road networks fell into centuries of disrepair. Transport relied on pack trains, which could negotiate the badly maintained roads and sufficed to carry the reduced stream of commerce. The first signs of a road revival came during the reign of Charlemagne late in the 8th century.


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Further road revival was aided first by the need to service the regular round of trade fairs and then, in the 11th century, by a centralization of power and an increase in religious fervour. Eventually a commercial revival set in. By the 12th century old cities were reviving and new ones were being built, especially in western Europe. Street paving became a reputable artisan activity, and by the 15th century well-maintained roads bringing food to the cities from their hinterlands were of critical importance. At the same time, wheeled vehicles increased in number and quality.

There was an awakened interest in better overland travel, better protection of merchants and other travelers, and the improvement of roads. Public funds, chiefly derived from tolls, were committed to road upkeep. Long-distance overland commerce increased rapidly and included a restoration of the trade route between Europe and China through Central Asia that Marco Polo traveled in the late 13th century.


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    6. Across the Atlantic, the period witnessed the rise of another notable road-building empire, that of the Incas. It included two parallel roadways, one along the coast about 2, miles in length, the other following the Andes about 3, miles in length with a number of cross connections. At its zenith, when the Spaniards arrived early in the 16th century, a network of some 14, miles of road served an area of about , square miles 1,, square kilometres in which lived nearly 10 million people.

    The network was praised by 16th-century explorers as superior to that in contemporary Europe.

    The Andes route was remarkable. The roadway was 25 feet wide and traversed the loftiest ranges. It included galleries cut into solid rock and retaining walls built up for hundreds of feet to support the roadway. Ravines and chasms were filled with solid masonry, suspension bridges with wool or fibre cables crossed the wider mountain streams, and stone surfacing was used in difficult areas.

    The steeper gradients were surmounted by steps cut in the rocks. Traffic consisted entirely of pack animals llamas and people on foot; the Inca lacked the wheel. Yet they operated a swift foot courier system and a visual signaling system along the roadway from watchtower to watchtower. In Europe , gradual technological improvements in the 17th and 18th centuries saw increased commercial travel, improved vehicles, and the breeding of better horses.

    These factors created an incessant demand for better roads, and supply and invention both rose to meet that demand. In the Italian engineer Guido Toglietta wrote a thoughtful treatise on a pavement system using broken stone that represented a marked advance on the heavy Roman style. In Thomas Procter published the first English-language book on roads.

    Roads and highways - The modern road | Britannica

    The first highway engineering school in Europe, the School of Bridges and Highways, was founded in Paris in Late in the 18th century the Scottish political economist Adam Smith , in discussing conditions in England, wrote,. Good roads, canals, and navigable rivers, by diminishing the expense of carriage, put the remote parts of the country more nearly upon a level with those in the neighbourhood of a town. They are upon that account the greatest of all improvements. Up to this time roads had been built, with minor modifications, to the heavy Roman cross section , but in the last half of the 18th century the fathers of modern road building and road maintenance appeared in France and Britain.

    In that year he developed an entirely new type of relatively light road surface, based on the theory that the underlying natural formation, rather than the pavement, should support the load. His standard cross section shown in the figure, top was 18 feet wide and consisted of an eight-inch-thick course of uniform foundation stones laid edgewise on the natural formation and covered by a two-inch layer of walnut-sized broken stone. This second layer was topped with a one-inch layer of smaller gravel or broken stone.

    Thomas Telford , born of poor parents in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, in , was apprenticed to a stone mason. Intelligent and ambitious, Telford progressed to designing bridges and building roads. He placed great emphasis on two features: 1 maintaining a level roadway with a maximum gradient of 1 in 30 and 2 building a stone surface capable of carrying the heaviest anticipated loads.

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    His roadways were 18 feet wide and built in three courses: 1 a lower layer, seven inches thick, consisting of good-quality foundation stone carefully placed by hand this was known as the Telford base , 2 a middle layer, also seven inches thick, consisting of broken stone of two-inch maximum size, and 3 a top layer of gravel or broken stone up to one inch thick. See figure, middle. McAdam began his road-building career in but reached major heights after , when he was appointed general surveyor for Bristol, then the most important port city in England. The roads leading to Bristol were in poor condition, and in McAdam took control of the Bristol Turnpike.

    There he showed that traffic could be supported by a relatively thin layer of small, single-sized, angular pieces of broken stone placed and compacted on a well-drained natural formation and covered by an impermeable surface of smaller stones. He had no use for the masonry constructions of his predecessors and contemporaries. The structural layer of broken stone as shown in the figure, bottom was eight inches thick and used stone of two to three inches maximum size laid in layers and compacted by traffic—a process adequate for the traffic of the time.

    The top layer was two inches thick, using three-fourths- to one-inch stone to fill surface voids between the large stones. Continuing maintenance was essential. Although McAdam drew on the successes and failures of others, his total structural reliance on broken stone represented the largest paradigm shift in the history of road pavements. The first engineered and planned road in the United States was the Lancaster Turnpike, a privately constructed toll road built between and Connecting Philadelphia and Lancaster in Pennsylvania, its mile length had a maximum grade of 7 percent and was surfaced with broken stone and gravel in a manner initially uninfluenced by the work of Telford and McAdam.

    However, pavement failures in led to the introduction of some of the new European methods. The Cumberland Road, also known as the National Pike, was an even more notable road-building feat. It had been advocated by both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson to aid western expansion and national unity.

    Work commenced in , and the road opened for traffic between Cumberland, Maryland, and Wheeling, West Virginia , in By it extended to Springfield, Ohio, and part of the way to Vandalia, Illinois. Specification requirements called for a foot right-of-way completely cleared. The roadway was to be covered 20 feet in width with stone 18 inches deep at the centre and 12 inches deep at the edge. The upper six inches were to consist of broken stone of three-inch maximum size and the lower stratum of stone of seven-inch maximum size.

    Highways Policy

    The road was constructed by the federal government, much of the finance being raised by land sales. Although maintenance was funded by tolls and federal appropriations, the road surface began to deteriorate in the s.

    Introduction to Traffic Engineering Studies

    Federal funding ceased in , and in the project was abandoned at Vandalia for political and practical reasons. For the next 60 years, road improvements were essentially confined to city streets or to feeder roads to railheads. Other rural roads became impassable in wet weather. Thus, roads at the turn of the 20th century were largely inadequate for the demands about to be placed on them by the automobile and truck.

    As vehicle speeds increased rapidly, the available friction between road and tire became critical for accelerating, braking, and cornering. In addition, numerous pavement failures made it obvious that much stronger and tougher materials were required.

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    The result was an ongoing search for a better pavement. Asphalt and concrete both offered promise. Asphalt is a mixture of bitumen and stone, and concrete is a mixture of cement and stone.

    Asphalt footpaths were first laid in Paris in , but the method was not perfected until after The first successful concrete pavement was built in Inverness, Scotland, in Neither technology, however, advanced far without the pressures of the car, and they both required the availability of powerful stone-crushing, mixing, and spreading equipment.

    The impetus for the development of modern road asphalt came from the United States , which had few deposits of natural bitumen to draw upon and where engineers were therefore forced to study the principles behind the behaviour of this material.

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    De Smedt went to Washington , D. In de Smedt was followed as inspector of asphalts and cements by Clifford Richardson, who set about the task of codifying the specifications for asphalt mixes. Richardson basically developed two forms of asphalt: asphaltic concrete, which was strong and stiff and thus provided structural strength; and hot-rolled asphalt, which contained more bitumen and thus produced a far smoother and better surface for the car and bicycle. One of the great convenient coincidences of asphalt development was that the automobile ran on gasoline , which at that time was simply a by-product of the distillation of kerosene from petroleum.

    Another by-product was bitumen. Until that time, most manufacturers had used coal tar a by-product of the making of gas from coal as the binder for road asphalt.