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- Dry Bulk Measurements and Other Challenges Facing the Marine Industry
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By continuing to browse the site you accept our Cookie Policy, you can change your settings at any time. Search results No results Sorry. Contact our Customer Support team. Not registered? The bulk freight market is very volatile, and it fluctuates, along with the type of cargo, the ship's size, and the route traveled all affect the final price.
Some shippers choose instead to charter a ship, paying a daily rate instead of a set price per ton. Generally, ships are removed from the fleet by going through a process known as ship breaking or scrapping. The crew includes the captain or master, the deck department , the engine department , and the steward's department. The practice of taking passengers aboard cargo ships, once almost universal, is very rare today and almost non-existent on bulk carriers.
During the s, bulk carriers were involved in an alarming number of shipwrecks. This led ship-owners to commission a study seeking to explain the effect of various factors on the crew's effectiveness and competence. Fewer deck officers are employed on bulk carriers than on similarly sized ships of other types. A bulk carrier's voyages are determined by market forces; routes and cargoes often vary.
A ship may engage in the grain trade during the harvest season and later move on to carry other cargoes or work on a different route. Aboard a coastal carrier in the tramp trade , the crew will often not know the next port of call until the cargo is fully loaded. Because bulk cargo is so difficult to discharge, bulk carriers spend more time in port than other ships.
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A study of mini-bulk carriers found that it takes, on average, twice as much time to unload a ship as it does to load it. Loading and unloading a bulk carrier is time-consuming and dangerous. The process is planned by the ship's chief mate under the direct and continued supervision of ship's captain. International regulations require that the captain and terminal master agree on a detailed plan before operations begin. Occasionally loading errors are made that cause a ship to capsize or break in half at the pier. The loading method used depends on both the cargo and the equipment available on the ship and on the dock.
In the least advanced ports, cargo can be loaded with shovels or bags poured from the hatch cover. This system is being replaced with faster, less labor-intensive methods. Once the cargo is discharged, the crew begins to clean the holds.
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This is particularly important if the next cargo is of a different type. When the holds are clean, the process of loading begins. It is crucial to keep the cargo level during loading in order to maintain stability. Leveling is particularly important when the hold is only partly full, since cargo is more likely to shift. A bulk carrier's design is largely defined by the cargo it will carry.
The cargo's density, also known as its stowage factor , is the key factor. Densities for common bulk cargoes vary from 0. The overall cargo weight is the limiting factor in the design of an ore carrier, since the cargo is so dense. Coal carriers, on the other hand, are limited by overall volume, since most bulk carriers can be completely filled with coal before reaching their maximum draft. For a given tonnage, the second factor which governs the ship's dimensions is the size of the ports and waterways it will travel to. For example, a vessel that will pass the Panama Canal will be limited in its beam and draft.
For most designs, the ratio of length-to-width ranges between 5 and 7, with an average of 6. The engine room on a bulk carrier is usually near the stern , under the superstructure. Larger bulk carriers, from Handymax up, usually have a single two-stroke low-speed crosshead diesel engine directly coupled to a fixed-pitch propeller. On the smaller bulk carriers, one or two four-stroke diesels are used to turn either a fixed or controllable-pitch propeller via a reduction gearbox , which may also incorporate an output for an alternator.
As a result of the oil crisis , the energy crisis , and the resulting rise in oil prices, experimental designs using coal to fuel ships were tested in the late s and early s. A hatch or hatchway is the opening at the top of a cargo hold. The mechanical devices which allow hatches to be opened and closed are called hatch cover. Hull stress is concentrated around the edges of the hatches, and these areas must be reinforced. Both of these options have the undesired effect of adding weight to the ship.
As recently as the s, hatches had wooden covers that would be broken apart and rebuilt by hand, rather than opened and closed. It is essential that the hatch covers be watertight: unsealed hatches lead to accidental cargo hold flooding, which has caused many bulk carriers to sink. The International Association of Classification Societies then increased this strength standard by creating its Unified Requirement S21 [69] in This standard requires that the pressure due to sea water be calculated as a function of freeboard and speed, especially for hatch covers located on the forward portion of the ship.
Bulk carriers are designed to be easy to build and to store cargo efficiently. To facilitate construction , bulk carriers are built with a single hull curvature.
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Comparing a ship's carrying capacity in terms of deadweight tonnage to its weight when empty is one way to measure its efficiency. Bulk carriers have a cross-section typical of most merchant ships. The upper and lower corners of the hold are used as ballast tanks , as is the double bottom area. The corner tanks are reinforced and serve another purpose besides controlling the ship's trim. Designers choose the angle of the corner tanks to be less than that of the angle of repose of the anticipated cargoes.
The double bottoms are also subject to design constraints.
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The primary concern is that they be high enough to allow the passage of pipes and cables. These areas must also be roomy enough to allow people safe access to perform surveys and maintenance. On the other hand, concerns of excess weight and wasted volume keep the double bottoms very tight spaces. Bulk carrier hulls are made of steel, usually mild steel. Double hulls have become popular in the past ten years. A recent design, called Hy-Con, seeks to combine the strengths of single-hull and double-hull construction.
Short for Hybrid Configuration, this design doubles the forward-most and rear-most holds and leaves the others single-hulled. Since the adoption of double hull has been more of an economic than a purely architectural decision, some argue that double-sided ships receive less comprehensive surveys and suffer more from hidden corrosion.
Freighters are in continual danger of "breaking their backs" [80] and thus longitudinal strength is a primary architectural concern. A naval architect uses the correlation between longitudinal strength and a set of hull thicknesses called scantlings to manage problems of longitudinal strength and stresses. A ship's hull is composed of individual parts called members. These analyses are conducted when traveling empty, loading and unloading, when partially and fully loaded, and under conditions of temporary overloading. The rules also establish margins for corrosion, from 0. The s and s were a very unsafe time for bulk carriers.
Many bulk carriers sank during this time; 99 were lost between and alone. Cargo shifting poses a great danger for bulk carriers. The problem is even more pronounced with grain cargoes, since grain settles during a voyage and creates extra space between the top of the cargo and the top of the hold.
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This can cause the ship to list, which, in turn, causes more cargo to shift. This kind of chain reaction can capsize a bulk carrier very quickly. They also required cargoes to be leveled, or trimmed, using excavators in the holds. Another sort of risk that can affect dry cargoes is absorption of ambient moisture.
In alone, 20 bulk carriers sank, taking with them 94 crewmen. In , 24 bulk carriers sank, killing The American Bureau of Shipping concluded that the losses were "directly traceable to failure of the cargo hold structure" [30] and Lloyd's Register of Shipping added that the hull sides could not withstand "the combination of local corrosion, fatigue cracking and operational damage.
The accident studies showed a clear pattern: [67]. Previous practices had required ships to withstand the flooding of a single forward hold, but did not guard against situations where two holds would flood. Externe relaties. Maak een PDF. Ingangsdatum: Permanente link.
Dry Bulk Measurements and Other Challenges Facing the Marine Industry
Section 01 Definitions Ingangsdatum: Section 02 General precautions Ingangsdatum: Section 03 Safety of personnel and ship Ingangsdatum: Section 04 Assessment of acceptability of consignments for safe shipment Ingangsdatum: Section 05 Trimming procedure Ingangsdatum: Section 06 Methods of determining the angle of repose Ingangsdatum: Section 07 Cargoes which may liquefy Ingangsdatum: Section 08 Cargoes which may liquefy - test procedures Ingangsdatum: Section 09 Materials possessing chemical hazards Ingangsdatum: In the case of segregation from combustible materials this should be understood not to include packaging material, ceiling or dunnage; the latter should in these circumstances be kept to a minimum.
The boundaries of such a space should be resistant to fire and liquid. In particular, contamination of foodstuffs should be avoided.