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Table of contents
- Organisational Change. A Case Study of Kenya's Ministry of Land
- References | Population Dynamics of Kenya | The National Academies Press
- Introduction
In conjunction with this, highest peak of rainfall at Marani was noted in September The combination of increased rainfall and air temperature increase at Marani gives the possible explanation of malaria resurgence in this area Figs. The increase of mean minimum temperature plays a major role on mosquito breeding in cool highland areas such as that of Kisii mean annual temperature of The raise of vector populations at Marani was preceded by an increase of the mean minimum air temperature by 2.
The climatic warming at Marani has resulted to an increase of the mean minimum temperature to Along with this, increasing land use as a results of population growth have also contributed the increased suitable breeding sites and survivorship of An. The efficacy of ACT in western Kenya remains high despite of the reported increase of polymorphisms of specific key codons [ 40 , 41 , 42 ].
Areas experiencing infection resurgence had lower use of SP and therefore drug resistance looks unlikely to explain the incident. The continued use of SP for presumptive treatment and self-prescriptions is consistent to the sustained SP specific codons polymorphisms while those of chloroquine diminishes [ 41 , 43 , 44 ]. Elsewhere in Africa, the sustained use of already resistant anti-malarials was associated with persistent malaria high transmissions [ 45 ].
Moreover, poverty has been associated with malaria morbidity and mortality for long but these three communities in western Kenya have similar social economic status and economic inequalities [ 46 , 47 ].
The school-based surveillance of asymptomatic malaria demonstrates to be a better metric for monitoring transmission intensity and intervention effect size than the hospital based Figs. For example at Kombewa, the number of positive cases in among primary school aged children was the same as in but the hospital survey shows higher number of cases in than Figs. This could be due the fact that the later surveillance system may be affected by number of factors like case management rate, reporting rate and case confirmation.
In western Kenya, malaria diagnosis and treatment used to be based on blood slide as well as clinical judgment, therefore some cases in could be clinically diagnosed and reported as confirmed [ 48 ]. However, malaria case detection following the introduction of rapid diagnostic tests and blood slide microscopy training over the recent years has greatly improved [ 49 ]. Moreover, the hospital-based surveillance system is often interrupted by frequent strike of physicians and nurses.
Asymptomatic malaria prevalence data among school age children was collected systematically and thus more reliable than hospital-based malaria case data Figs. The use of LLINs among the school age was highest at Marani malaria resurgence site and lowest at Iguhu an area with controlled transmission. One would expect to see highest use of LLINs in an area that has attained sustained transmission control but the opposite is true.
This means that other factors like increase in vector population and insecticide resistance could be the likely major drive of infection transmissions in these populations.
In western Kenya, suitability of asymptomatic malaria surveillance in schools has been evaluated and found to be representative of the general population [ 51 ]. Therefore, the described trend of malaria transmission which also correlates with the indoor vectors populations represents the true infection transmission dynamics in the study area Figs. This study however lacks information of the long-term malaria case management rates, site specific An. This information would have improved the analysis on the cause of the observed changing dynamics of malaria infection in western Kenya.
The sustained highest composition of the highly anthropophilic An. The increase of the mean minimum air temperature and precipitation have led to an increased abundance of insecticide resistant An. At Iguhu where there was a sustained control of infection, the pyrethroids moderately resistant An.
Climate variability, insecticide resistance and vector population shift are likely the cause of the contrasting outcome of malaria interventions n western Kenya. To meet the GMAP targets there is a call for use of carbamates and organophosphates for indoor targeted interventions and expansion the integrated vector management [ 16 , 31 ].
Organisational Change. A Case Study of Kenya's Ministry of Land
Along with this, the continued surveillance of vectors and clinical and subclinical infection is highly recommended for changing infection transmission risks. Monitoring of insecticides resistance should be done along with use of air temperature and precipitation data to predict vector and parasite dynamics especially in highlands where slight changes in these parameters could lead to devastating infection outbreaks. Malaria transmission competence and biting behaviour of re-emerging Anopheles funestus complex should be also studied. World malaria report Geneva: World Health Organization; The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between and Minstry of Health.
Kenya Malaria Monitoring and Evaluation Plan — Nairobi: Ministry of Health; Accessed 20 Nov The effect of indoor residual spraying on the prevalence of malaria parasite infection, clinical malaria and anemia in an area of perennial transmission and moderate coverage of insecticide treated nets in western Kenya. Indoor residual spraying IRS and its impact on malaria prevalence in West Africa using the panel data regression model. Sci J Appl Math Stat.
References | Population Dynamics of Kenya | The National Academies Press
Kenya Malaria indicator Survey Ministry of Health. Nairobi: Ministry of Health, Kenya; Parasites and vectors of malaria on Rusinga Island, western Kenya. Parasit Vectors. Modelling the impact of artemisinin combination therapy and long-acting treatments on malaria transmission intensity. PLoS Med. A randomized, open-label, comparative efficacy trial of artemether—lumefantrine suspension versus artemether—lumefantrine tablets for treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children in western Kenya. Malar J.
National Malaria Treatment Guidelines. Insecticide-treated net campaign and malaria transmission in western Kenya: — Front Public Health. Persistently high estimates of late night, indoor exposure to malaria vectors despite high coverage of insecticide treated nets.
Increasing incidence of malaria in children despite insecticide-treated bed nets and prompt anti-malarial therapy in Tororo, Uganda. Pyrethroid and DDT resistance and organophosphate susceptibility among Anopheles spp. Emerg Infect Dis. Surveillance of malaria vector population density and biting behaviour in western Kenya. Malaria resurgence: a systematic review and assessment of its causes.
Changing patterns of malaria epidemiology between and in western Kenya: the fall and rise of malaria. Test procedures for insecticide resistance monitoring in malaria vector mosquitoes. Population dynamics of malaria vectors in western Kenya highlands. J Med Entomol. A first report of Anopheles funestus sibling species in western Kenya highlands. Acta Trop.
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Evaluation of two methods of estimating larval habitat productivity in western Kenya highlands. Malaria vector population dynamics in highland and lowland regions of western Kenya. J Vector Borne Dis. Evaluation of universal coverage of insecticide-treated nets in western Kenya: field surveys. Centre for disease control CDC , Department of state health and human service. Accessed 21 Sept Lack of decline in childhood malaria, Malawi, — Contrasting Plasmodium infection rates and insecticide susceptibility profiles between the sympatric sibling species Anopheles parensis and Anopheles funestus s.
Increasing role of Anopheles funestus and Anopheles arabiensis in malaria transmission in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania. Reemergence of Anopheles funestus as a vector of Plasmodium falciparum in western Kenya after long-term implementation of insecticide-treated bed nets. Am J Trop Med Hyg. Widespread pyrethroid and DDT resistance in the major malaria vector Anopheles funestus in East Africa is driven by metabolic resistance mechanisms. Increasing insecticide resistance in Anopheles funestus and Anopheles arabiensis in Malawi, — Early biting of the Anopheles gambiae s.
The ecology of Anopheles mosquitoes under climate change: case studies from the effects of deforestation in East African highlands.
Introduction
Ann NY Acad Sci. A trust is an entity created to hold and manage assets for the benefit of others. Charitable purposes may also be affected by forming a trust by way of a trust deed. The trustees of a pension fund or provident fund may also apply to be registered as a body corporate.