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Editorial Reviews. About the Author. Maurice H. (Maurice Henry) Harris, Author of Hebraic literature; translations from The Talmud, Midrashim, and.
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- LITERATURE, HEBREW:
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D by William John Ferrar. The History of the Jews by Gotthard Deutsch.
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Judaism by Ephraim Levine. Rodkinson Vol. Iverach Munro. Aspects of the Bible by H. Charles Vol. The Genius of Judaism by Isaac D'israeli. Early Judaism by Laurence Edward Browne. Liddell Mac Gregor Mathers. Is He the Progeny of Ham? Is He a Descendant of Adam and Eve? Has He a Soul?
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The Book of Concealed Mystery 2. The Greater Holy Assembly 3. The Lesser Holy Assembly by S. Mac Gregor Mathers. Astronomy in the Old Testament by G. Studies in Judaism by Solomon Schechter. Zionism by Richard James Horatio Gottheil.
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The Herods by F. Vance Smith Vol. Israel in Europe by G. D by Shailer Mathews. The Talmud by Arsene Darmesteter. Josephus by Norman de Mattos Bentwich. Moses Maimonides by Israel Friedlaender. Zionism Problems and Views by Paul Goodman. History of Zionism, by Nahum Sokolow Vol.
Wallis Budge.
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The Case Against Zionism by H. Old Testament History by Ismar J. Traces of the Halakah are discoverable even in the Later Prophets, but its period of full development lies between B. In the latter half of the fifth century the Babylonian schools declined and the teachers of the Law no longer assumed authority. They confined their teachings to the comparison and explanation of the laws that came down to them from previous generations, allowing themselves to introduce only methodological and mnemonic signs into the Talmud.
This sums up literary activity in the line of the Law during the period following the close of the Talmud. See Saboraim. The development of the Halakah in the subsequent period received impetus from the fact that the Babylonian schools once more raised themselves to an important position, owing, perhaps, to Arabic dominion in that country.
The Geonim, as the teachers of this period are called, did not produce independent halakah, but continued to promote the study of the Talmud. What the Bible was to the Tannaim and Amoraim that the Talmud became, in its turn, to the Geonim and later teachers. It lay before them as an object of exposition, investigation, and discussion. The succeeding period was one of systematization, condensation, and elucidation; introductions, commentaries, compendiums, and dictionaries were the outcome of the study of the Talmud in those days.
A new epoch commenced with the activity of Maimonides. His "Mishneh Torah" embraces the whole field of Halakah, and became an object of much discussion and explanation. In the fourteenth century the halakic literature began to deteriorate, and instead of being the guide of conduct it became a mere play of the intellect.
Works on the Halakah are to be found in various forms, viz.
From the prophetic utterances to the preachings and homilies of later days was but a short step, and accordingly public preaching for general instruction and moral edification was instituted among the Jews in very early times. This gave rise to the Haggadah, which did for the spirit what the Halakah did for the practise of Judaism. Just as the Halakah embraces various kinds of law, so does the Haggadah embrace different forms of thought.
In a restricted sense, however, the Haggadah may be said to deal with ethics and metaphysics, and it is in this sense that it may be regarded as the natural issue of the earlier prophecies. In its ethical characteristics the Haggadah was greatly influenced by the Wisdom literature of the Bible, but in its metaphysical tendencies it shows the influence of Hellenistic philosophy.
The metaphysical Haggadah did not develop into a separate literature until a much later date.
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See Midrash ; Targum. About the middle of the eighth century Arabic philosophy began to exercise a strong influence over the Jewish mind, and owing to the rationalistic character of that philosophy the Midrash ceased to grow, and its place was taken by theological and philosophical works of a systematic nature. The prophetic spirit is no longer so clearly discernible as before, owing to the large intermixture of foreign thought, but, on the other hand, the prodigious development of Hebrew literature in the Middle Ages must be ascribed to this foreign influence, for its presence is felt in almost every branch of thought cultivated in those days.
It is seen in the rise of Karaism, in the development of philology and exegesis, as well as in the cultivation of general sciences among the Jews. Later, again, when Jewish thought came in touch with Christian mysticism, the developed Cabala sprang into existence in place of the metaphysical Haggadah see Cabala. Finally, a great part of the large controversial literature owes its existence to the conflict between Judaism and Mohammedanism.
The theological literature previous to the twelfthcentury is very fragmentary, and consists mostly of partial translations from the Arabic. Though the beginning of this literature dates from the days of Saadia Gaon, there is no independent work of the kind in Hebrew until a much later date, and even the earliest among the prominent men in this field, Ibn Gabirol 11th cent.
The first important theological writers in Hebrew were Levi ben Gershon 14th cent. The metaphysical Haggadah assumed under the influence of Arabic philosophy the aspect of a systematic philosophy, and through the influence of Christian mysticism it became a sort of theosophy which looked for the hidden and disregarded the evident meaning of the Law, and which, under the name of Cabala, began to develop an extensive literature, first in Italy and in Provence, and later in the East. The founder of the Cabala was R. Isaac the Blind 12th cent.
To the same century undoubtedly belongs the most famous cabalistic work, the Zohar, which is ascribed by all critics to Moses de Leon.
The cabalistic literature of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is mostly anonymous and not original. But a new epoch opens with the teachings of R. Isaac Luria in the sixteenth century. He inaugurated the "practical" Cabala. No longer content to be restricted to the world of thought, this Cabala assumed to interfere in the world of action and to direct man's conduct in life.
With the rise of systematic theology there came into existence an extensive literature of controversy. For although traces of this literature may be found in the Talmud, it was not until Judaism came into conflict with its two sister religions and with Karaism that religious controversy became a significant part of Hebrew literature. The first great work of this kind is the "Cuzari" of Judah ha-Levi, which is directed mainly against Mohammedanism and Karaism.
In modern times Isaac Baer Levinsohn wrote many controversial works. Another product of the influence which Arabic philosophy exerted over Judaism is Karaism. It took its origin in the latter part of the eighth century and came early under the influence of Mohammedan dogmatism. Its literature dates from the same period, and consists mainly of dogmatics, exegesis, and grammatical works; its most prominent authors are: Judah Hadassi 12th cent.
In the nineteenth century the most prominent Karaite scholar was Abraham ben Samuel Firkovich. To the influence of Arabic literature must be ascribed also the scientific development of Hebrew grammar, which in turn greatly affected Biblical exegesis; both form important branches of Hebrew literature, but they can not be discussed here. The lack of Jewish writings on these subjects is traceable to the sufferings and persecutions that have marked their path.
Before the chronicler had had time to record past afflictions, new sorrows and troubles broke upon them" G.