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Yet Renard is already betrothed to the innocent Elene. Torn between Olwen and Elene, Renard's personal dilemma is set against a background of increasing civil strife as Ranulf of Chester, his greedy neighbour, strives to snatch his lands. An awkward misfit loathed by his autocratic grandmother, nine-year-old Fulke FitzWarin leaves his family to be fostered in the household of Jocelin de Dinan, lord of Ludlow.

Fulke is to train in knightly arts but to succeed he must overcome the deep-seated doubts holding him back. Hawise, Jocelin's youngest daughter, befriends the young Fulke. Piet Barol and Stacey are navigating the turbulence and opportunities of colonial South Africa in a quest for comfort and riches. The Land Act has turfed thousands of black families out of their homes, and Piet is appalled by their treatment. But after five years of decadent living, Piet and Stacey are short of cash and in need of wood for the furniture business they have founded.

So Piet sets off to pursue a fabled tree, a journey which will take him deep into the homelands of the Xhosa clan, who believe that the spirits of their ancestors reside in the magical trees. The Roman Empire is on the brink of civil war. Only Maxentius, tyrant of Rome, stands between the emperor Constantine and supreme power in the west. Aurelius Castus, promoted from the ranks for valour, is now a tribune in Constantine's army. But as Constantine becomes increasingly devoted to Christianity, Castus is forced to ask himself whether he is backing the wrong man It's and Britain is at war.

For the aristocratic Walsingham family this means their grand home being taken over by the armed forces.

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But for newcomers Ava, Maudie and Bella, this is a chance for something more. Each is ready to do their part for the war effort and soon become firm friends. But Lord Edward Walsingham seems like he is hiding something. And although he may be clever, he might have met his match in Maudie and the girls Porlock Weir, Exmoor, Thirteen years after the Great Pestilence, plague strikes England for the second time.

Sara, a packhorse man's wife, remembers the horror all too well and fears for the safety of her children. Only a dark-haired stranger offers help but at a price that no one will pay. Categories All Categories Fiction Historical. Last 30 Days Last 90 Days Under 1 Hour Over 20 Hours Whispersync for Voice 5, A Name Unknown By: Add to Cart failed.

Please try again later. Add to Wish List failed. Remove from wishlist failed. Adding to library failed. Free with day Trial. Book of Colours By: Robyn Cadwallader Narrated by: Philippa Gregory Narrated by: Mad Blood Stirring By: Simon Mayo Narrated by: Christmas with the Bomb Girls By: Daisy Styles Narrated by: The Joyce Girl By: Annabel Abbs Narrated by: The Hour of Separation By: Katharine McMahon Narrated by: Tales of Passion, Tales of Woe By: Sandra Gulland Narrated by: Trilogy , Book 2 Length: Here Was a Man By: Norah Lofts Narrated by: David Churchill Narrated by: The Leopards of Normandy , Book 3 Length: Tomorrow Brings Sorrow By: Mary Wood Narrated by: Woman Enters Left By: Jessica Brockmole Narrated by: Caitlin Thorburn, Laurence Bouvard Length: Caitlin Thorburn , Laurence Bouvard Length: Leopard at the Door By: Jennifer McVeigh Narrated by: The Night Brother By: Rosie Garland Narrated by: The Leopard Unleashed By: Elizabeth Chadwick Narrated by: Wild Hunt Trilogy , Book 3 Length: Shadows and Strongholds By: FitzWarin , Book 1 Length: Who Killed Piet Barol?

Richard Mason Narrated by: During thirteen years Krimhilde continues her mourning for Siegfried, and awaits the time for revenge; when at last king Etzel asks for her hand. Seeing that this union will give her the opportunity so long and ardently desired, she accepts the offer, and joins Etzel in Hungary.

A few years after, she invites her relations there. It is in vain that Hagen, whose evil conscience, perhaps, forebodes ill warns them not to trust her; so he joins them himself with the pur- pose of counteracting her designs. The signal for battle being thus given, he begins the strife by slaying her infant son. Krimhilde, in her despair, now becomes a fury; and the fight grows fierce and general. This deed revolts Hildebrand the only survivor of Dietrich's hand of heroes ; who suddenly murders Krimhilde, and thus terminates this terrible tragedy. Only the three, — "Etzel," "Dietrich,'' and "Hildebrand," — survive this catastrophe, and mourn over the death of the heroes ; their grief being described in a supplement to the Nibelungen entitled "die Klage.

It is full of occurrences, partly romantic and partly historical, of which Gudrun, the daughter of king Hetel of Hegelingen Friesland is the heroine; on whose account wars with Normandy and other countries are undertaken. In these two works the principal remains of the old Teutonic Sagas are collected ; and the wonderful exploits which they describe may be regarded as a sort of counterpart to those heroic deeds of the ancient Greeks which the two great Ho- meric poems have immortalized.

But the interest of poems of this kind is gradually lost in the 13th and 14th centuries and the national epos shares the decline of the Minnegesang. It is true the traditions of Ger- many were still collected; but foreign legends soon found fa- vour, and gradually diminished the interest taken in those purely national. Of these latter however, we have an important collection entitled "Das Heldenbuch," the book of Heroes , of which the most perfect copy is the one transcribed by Kaspar von der Eoen The most important of these traditions are those of " Otnit," " Hug " and " Wolfdietrich," der " Eosen- garten " the scene of which is laid on one of the islands in the Ehine near Worms , " Die Eabenschlacht," the legend of the "dwarf-king Luarin," and the "gehOrnte Siegfried.

The Crusaders transplanted many a foreign legend into Germany; such as "Konig Arthur's Tafelrunde," and the tra- ditions of the "Heihge Gral" sang r6al. To be elected a knight of the Holy Grail, was esteemed the highest honour possible; and was only bestowed on the most noble and virtuous knights.

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The round temple in which It was preserved was erected by the legendary king Titurel, and stood on the mountain called Montsalvage, in Spain. This temple has been described by the poets as a marvel of beauty, being built of gold, and ornamented with jewels and precious stones of all kinds. The most distinguished of the Minnesingers were: His great epic poem, " Iwein " so called from the name of the hero ; who was one of King Arthur's knights of the round table illustrates his style in a less degree than "der arme Heinrich," an idyllic legend which is full of domestic pathos and gentle feeling.

It contains the adventures of a pious and penitent knight. Eschenbach has also left us the fragments of a chival- rous poem entitled "Titurel," the first priest king of the Grail. With the writings of these poets the great epics of chivalry ceased. These "Chroniken'' show plainly that it was only the want of a German prose, which prompted their authors to rhyme. The "Karlssage" and the " Haimonskinder " belong to this series.

A great change takes place in the 14th century; owing partly to the covetousness of the German emperors, and partly to the strife between the knights in their old castles, who turn robbers and highway men, and the burghers, who must protect their cities and property — a strife which, as might be expected, results in open war, and destroys the small remnants hitherto existing of chivalrous and poetic feeling.

The time of the troubadours and "Minne" had passed ; cities rose higher and higher in importance ; the arts and sciences progressed; and it was not long before Johann Guttenberg, born who belonged to a patrician family at Mayence, made his wonderful invention public. The strife between the nobles and burghers of Mayence came to an outbreak in , when most of those who belonged to patrician families left the city.

Among them was Guttenberg, who, in the year , went to Strasburg; and returned, after experiencing many hardships, to Mayence, where he entered into partnership with a citizen named Johann Fust, i , for the purpose of bringing out his great invention, — the art of printing with moveable letters. The first great work, which he printed was the won- derful book "Biblia Latina Vulgata," in two volumes folio A new light burst upon civilization with this noble invention ; and a new era in letters began.

The establishment of Univer- sities at Prague, Vienna, Heidelberg, Cologne, and Leipzig, in- fluenced still more the general character of German literature. These societies, or guilds, of poets associated for the purpose of cultivating vocal music, sent forth a great quantity of so- called poetry; in which, however, nothing like real poetic feeling was visible. Their songs - at first of a legendary and religious character — after the bible had been circulated amongst the people, became altogether biblical.

But besides the " Song," which became universal in this period, another species of literature was created, which gives us the best indication of the change which society had experienced. It was a time of commotion in every rank of life. The burgher stood up for his rights and his privileges against the old feudal aristocracy: Besides this, the works of classical antiquity had driven the heavy scholastic learning from the chairs of the Universities; and the "Komische Volksliteratur," created by the people, became the very opposite of the "Eitterminne.

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The wit and mirth of these productions was low; but yet their influence was so powerful that no class could withstand it. It even penetrated — represented by " der Hofnarr," Court fool — into the very presence of royalty. Some of the earliest Volksbiicher of this kind are " der Pfaffe Amis," written by the poet Stkicker; "Salomon and Morolf," an ancient Eastern tale, which was remodelled in the middle of the 15th century and "Der Pfaffe von Kalenberg," a "fool's book," which was only surpassed by the facetious "Till Eulenspiegel.

The humour of the people evinces itself in satire against the friars, in irony against mystic learning, and in the wild burlesque which laughs at magic and the devil ; all of which contribute to form the matter of these "peoples' tales. The impression which this book created was so great and universal that Gbilbr von Kaisersbbeg, — , one of the most talented pulpit orators of the time, used the various chapters of the Narrenschiff for texts.

It contained a deep and important allegory — depicting, as it did, the tyranny and lawlessness of those rulers who set all order at defiance to attain their selfish ends. But one of themostprolifioand witty of the satirical authors of this period was Johann Fischakt, i. An intimate ac- quaintance with ancient and modern languages, combined with a wonderful talent and fertility of resource for twisting the German language into the most ludicrous forms, made his writings the very Babel of style.

Among his many productions is the novel "Gargantua," the title of which runs thus: Imitations of Aesop's Fables were made use of as vehicles of satire against the numerous abuses of the day, particularly of the religious sects then dominant — the chief of which was that of the Anabaptists.

The unbounded and degrading licence of the Catholic Church had long called for reform. The monk Martin Luther — responded to the call. In a work like the present, we must confine ourselves to a passing remark on the great protest of which he was the originator, and consider more especially the impetus he gave to literature. Hitherto the Latin tongue alone had been in use among the learned. Martin Luther was the first, who introduced the Saxon, or high German dialect into the language of books. His nervous eloquence, the power with which he wielded his pen, the energy of his style, which was equally terse and pithy, and above all his intimate ac- quaintance with the resources of the language of the body of the people, carried conviction to all hearts, and tended more to the advancement of literature than anything that had yet been done.

Apart from his own writings, his noble translation of the bible into the vulgar tongue will remain an enduring monument to Luthers' fame. His rehgious dissertations were written with the very marrow of the German language. His paper "Das Papstthum in Eom vom Teufel gestiftet" is especially remarkable, and his "Predigten", " Tischreden ", "Ti-ostschriften", and "Briefe" all show the great resources of manner and style which he possessed, as a German writer. From this time may be dated the beginning of a complete division between the " geistliche " and " weltliche Liederdichtung ".

Among the former we may notice, besides Luther, Musculus — and Johann Arndt — The latter published a work of great mystic eminence entitled "Vier Biicher vom wahren Christenthum ", and another " das Paradiesgartlein ", both of which have remained in high repute among pious people and mystics to this day. Many protestant clergymen distinguished themselves in the composition of religious hymns; e. Paul Spbratus, who wrote "Es ist das Heil uns kommen her;" Nic. Decius, who composed the masterly hymn "Allein Gott in der Heh' sei Ehr"; and Paul Gerhard the pious and noble minded man, who, when his faith was attacked, packed up his worldly things and trusting in God, went cheerfully into exile, poverty and wretchedness.

His life is one of the most touching biographies extant. There is a perfect divine inspiration in these men who were the pillars of Protestantism ; the result of which is a grandeur in the hymns they composed which we do not appear to be able to match in our days. Dramatic Poetry went hand in hand with the reformation. The old Mysteries were originated by the Church herself; but the " Fastnachtsspiele " were in opposition to the religious drama; for here were mirth, satire, drollery and a stock of laughter in store for the people.

The Nurnberg shoemaker, Hans Sachs, — was one of the most eminent and prolific authors of this school. He rhymed on himself thus: Attached as Haks Sach. It is with much wit and merriment that he depicts the frolics of the lower classes ; of handici-aftsmen and peasants, of soldiers and vagrants, of gypsies and quacks, whilst at the same time, and with equal firmness and honesty, he instructs and educates them. The variety of Hans Sachs' writings is perfectly amazing. His merits are firstly, that he gave a considerable impulse to the poetry of his age ; secondly that he imjsarted to it a more artistic form, and one more accordant with the models of antiquity; and thirdly, that he brought the literature of Greece and Rome into notice, by translating Sophocles' "Antigone," and various other classical works.

But although Opitz was a man of talent, he was utterly devoid of poetical imagination, and deserves notice more on account of the impulse he gave to poetry, than for any individual merits he possessed. But the thirty years war, which had desolated the whole surface of Germany, had also extended its enervating influence to the language, which had become iiiterlarded with foreign words of all kinds. The views of Opitz were now no longer considered correct, and the classical writers were discarded, as models, on account of the supposed harshness of their style.

The authors of this date turned their eyes towards France, and copied the bad Italian models of Guarini and Marino. Thus the poetry of this period was full of bombast, exaggeration and pedantry. Andreas Gryphius —64 ranks as the first of this school ; but he had a leaning towards mysticism and superstition. His "Kirchhofsgedanken " exhibits some talent, and his tragedies " Carl Stuart " and " Leo der Armenier " are not without merit. Franz Horn describes these would-be poets admirably, in the following sentence: Darum entschwand ihnen das SchSne, und sie schrieben schlecht, well sie besser schreiben wollten als gut" The entire German nation, at this time, was so infected with French modes of expression and habits of thought, that even that illustrious founder of a new school of philosophy — Leibnitz — composed several of his works in that language.

Great praise, however, is due to the philosopher Christian von Wolf, - who not only did much for the general improvement of his vernacular tongue but enriched the philosophical department of it in particular with many new technical expressions. Wolf was a man of enlightened ideas, and one who sensibly quickened the intellectual progress of his age.

His doctrines were too free for the theologians; who intrigued with the pietist parties of Halle , until an edict banished him from the university. Frederic the second however recalled him ; and his teachings awakened thoughts to "das Wesen der Dinge". We arrive at last at the time when the poetry of Germany aroused itself from the state of servile imitation into which it had fallen; and two men appear, who do their utmost to effect a change. These men are Bodmer and Gottsched.

This sect, however inferior in point of poetical talent, were without a rival, until Gottsched arose at Leipzig and Bodmer at Zurich; and high time it was that these two should come forward, the poetry of Germany being then in a most deplorable state. We will only refer to those men who styled themselves "Hofpoeten"; who were miserable scribblers, whose highest aim was to celebrate the doings of the petty courts of Germany, which they did in the most bombastic form and in the dryest manner.

German Literature was at this period at its lowest ebb ; and we gladly welcome GtJNTHER — and Liscov, who began to criticize the mean cringings of these miserable "Hofpoeten". Religion was in the hands of Mystics and "Ver- finsterer", as in the'- middle ages; though the philosophy of Wolff had raised up many worthy men , who were actuated by an earnest desire for improvement. The poetry of the age was as destitute of style as it was barren of invention , until those great masters of melody Handel bom at Halle and Sebastian Bach born at Eisenach arose, to give im- measurable impulse to the development of German life, both in poetry and in religioTi.

However, a step was at last made in the right direction, and Germany became more intellectually active than it was before. Gottsched of Leipzig and Bodmer of Zurich severally succeeded in establishing schools of their own, and a great literary war was fought between these writers. Gottsched and his school The first Saxon School were mere copyists of the French style of composition, whilst Bodmer and, J. Beeitinger — turned more to the works of antiquity and the study of English authors , particularly Milton, for the formation of their literary taste and character.

A paper war was carried on in their respective journals, which at length ended favourably to the Swiss school; which, although the smaller party , obtained a splendid victory over its antagonist. The chief characteristic of this period is its imitation of French literature. The vernacular tongue was cleared and sifted from the rubbish that had weighed it down, and grew gradually more and more refined, until at last the dialect known as the "Hochdeutsch" was the sole medium of books and of corres- pondence, all other idioms being banished from the stage of literature.

This school was developed by a body of men of a marked poetical talent. A periodical magazine, which they put forth under the title of "Beitrage zum Vergniigen des Verstandes nnd Witzes ", was at once the channel of their communications, and the point round which they centred. In this body of men, and in the school they founded, we find, individually and collectively, the type of another order of writing, tending to raise the literature, and language of Germany.

Rabener under- takes the didactic, supplying prose - satire , Zachariae gives heroics and satires, Gellert is the fabulist, Gisbkb devotes his talents to song, Gaertner does his best in criticism, J. Schlbgel favours the ode, and the dramatic elements are ad- vocated by J. Was born the 17th of September , at Wachau, near Leipzig. He studied the law at Leipzig, where he became intimately acquainted with Gellert. He died the 22nd of March, , at Dresden. His "Satyren" — not without wit — are consequently tame and uninteresting reading. The following are the best to read: Was born on the 4th of July, , at Haynichen, a little town in the Saxon mountains.

He studied theology and philosophy at Leipzig, and became in Professor at the same University. He died on the 13th December, Gellert's fame is neither founded on his genius nor on his philosophical qualifications: Almost every thing that he wrote was more or less adapted for the body of the people.

His language was so simple that no one could fail to understand him.

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Gellert's "Fabeln" in which he imitated Lafontaine, contain great moral truths combined with comments upon men and manners, and wise rules for their reformation. The "Fabeln und Erzahlungen" which have made him most celebrated are those of a humorous nature, in which he takes for subject the middle and lower classes. Most of them are amusing ; but the most popular are: Some of his hymns are remarkably fine, and have even become standard Kirchenlieder. And his "Auf Gott und nicht auf meinen Eath", is quite a favourite hymn throughout the whole of Germany.

But Gellert is powerless when his aim is to repre- sent the'high actions, or noble life of an individual: In the department of novel writing, Gellert cannot be said to have possessed any talent at all ; his " Schwedische Griifin,'' although translated into several languages, being a very inferior production.. Of even less value are the comedies of this writer, which, to say the truth, are absolute failures.

His style is very faulty, on account of the frequent provincialisms he employs. Was born at Leipzig, on the 27th of September, , was Pro-' fessor of Mathematics at Gottingen, and died 20th June, Kabstnee was a celebrated and acute mathematician, besides being the author of a great many epigrams, never likely to grow out of date.

Even those epigrams which refer to local and personal occasions, and are scarcely to be understood without a key, are as caustic than any. Nor are his elegies, odes, and songs without merit. Born the 1st of May, , at Frankenhausen, where he studied the science of Jurisprudence. He is the last author we have to mention as a member of this school. Zacharia was endowed with a poetical invention and considerable powers of wit ; a union of qualities of which he made most advantageous use in his comic epopees of "Der Eenomist" or "The Roisterer," which was a happy attempt to introduce the comic Epos into German literature "Das Schmipf- tuch," "Murner in derHuUe," and particularly in his "Phaeton.

In these descriptive poems he took Thomson as his model. Indeed he almost always copied English authors. He also translated into german, Milton's "Paradise Lost," in which, however, he may be considered to have failed. Goethe said of him: A tolerable fabuUst or versifier was hailed with delight and spoken of with enthusiasm. But few of those who were then called poets would now be considered as such. The most prominent among the'm were the following: Who was born at Hamburg, on the 23rd of April, Occupies rather a high place among the writers of this period ; and although not a poet of the first calibre, he wrote, never- theless, with considerable ease and grace.

The language of Hagedorn is simple and correct. It is on this account that contemporary critics speak very highly of him ; thus Wieland styles him, — "the poet, who, in the single article of refinement of style, has no worthy successor in the literature of any country; the author, who has wrought up his productions to the highest degree of finish ; the man, whom few, if any, writers will ever equal in the matter of industry. They are told with a Hveliness and vigour truly characteristic. His " Seifensieder" soap-boiler is an excellent poem ; few of his works have been more successful and popular.

Indeed we must, in historic justice, allow, that Hagedorn, acting in concert with Haller, did more for the amelioration of the style of this period, than all the other writers put together. Hagedorn is the poet of men and manners ; Haller, of nature and her scenes. Hagedorn's "Lehr- gedichte" are valuable fragments of moral truth; though be had more talent, certainly, for simple lyric poetry. His epigrams, are scrupulously correct ; so much so, as to have been accepted as models, in those times.

In more extended metrical compo- sition, — the long ode, for example, — he was not so successful. Indeed, Hagedorn's talent was scarcely equal to this class of composition. But in smaller efforts, — in httle tales, for instance, — he works with great clearness and skill: Hagedorn died on the 28th of October, In the year , he became professor of medicine at Goettingen. So great was his fame, that the emperor Francis I ennobled him. He died on the 12th of December Haller was one of the most accomplished and original men of this era.

A poet, anatomist, physiologist, botanist, and man of letters, he seemed to be an adept in almost all the different branches of human enquiry. The epoch in which Haller first started as a poet, was a critical one for the resources of his genius ; for he had to steer clear, on the one hand, of the false taste in literature, introduced by Lohenstein, and to beware, on the other, of falling into the error of a bombastic versification, then so much in fashion. He therefore took Virgil, and modern writers of the English school, for his guidance.

Haller's poetry is pervaded throughout by a didactic aim. All his Ijoems abound with ideas, some are remarkable for the beauty of their rhythm; though the moral is so habitually predominant, as to take off, in no small degree, from the aesthetical beauty of the main design. Eleven editions of it were published during his life time. It was written during a progress over the Alps; so that nature herself must needs have suggested to our poet' the scenery he so eloquently describes. His soul is inspired by a love for the ideal, and his glowing apprecia- tion of whatever is true, assists him to portray, in the quiet valleys of the Alps, that primeval innocence, which has long since vanished from the busy, bustling world.

Profound, yet touching, are his sorrows ; he sets forth the errors of the mind and heart in a strain of vigorous and almost bitter satire: Haller is great, bold, impetuous, and sublime; but that which constitutes the essence and reality of heauty, it has not, in his poems, been his fortune to attain. Mit diesen Eigenscbaften konnte er kein Dichter sein. Haller himself considered his religious poem, "Vom Ursprung des Uebels" as his masterpiece, and Hked it better than any- thing he ever did.

This poem , at any rate , may claim to be considered the forerunner of Klopstock's "Messias. His unfinished poem, "AndieEwig- keit" also contains some grand conceptions. In one of his letters to Bodmer, Haller volunteers the ad- mission, that, "in himself, he is no poet at all; but that great quickness of observation, when a youth, had, to a certain extent, made him one ": The striking scenery that mountain regions afford, is given by him, while actually trar- Yersing their mighty steeps, with great fidelity and skill; and still more finely, and with even a larger measure of success, does he portray the manners and customs of those races, who dwell in the Alpine districts.

This poem has , upon the whole, " made " the name of its author, and will always be read with pleasure. Who was torn on the 2nd of April , at Emsleben, a small town near Halberstadt. He was educated at the Leipzig univer- sity; where, in conjunction with Goetz and Uz, he became a follower of the Muses. Gleim attended Prince Leopold of Dessau, in the second Silesian war, in the quality of his secretary. Gleim was the man upon whom the German nation he- stowed, the appellation of "Vater.

It used to be the fashion indeed, to extol the poetical gifts of Gleim far above the real standard of their merits. Gleim was a man who, like Gellert, earned and secured his reputation rather from his amiable private character than from anything he wrote. The best known of Gleim's literary pro- ductions are his "Fabeln," which are, nevertheless, of very various pretensions.

Some of them may be fairly accounted elegant; while others are "weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable," on account of the political bias, or theological aims, with which they were written. We instance the best of his productions when we name his "PreussischeKriegslieder eines Grenadiers;" and amongst them, more particularly, "Siegeslied nach der Schlacht bei Lowositz ," " Siegeslied nach der Schlacht bei Prag ," and the celebrated "Siegeslied nach der Schlacht bei Eossbach;" for there is a vein of patriotism throughout the whole , which is quite unrivalled.

Lessing gives these " Kriegsheder " the honorable title of " Bardengesang ; " — no mean proof, this, of the high value they had won in his eyes. Who was born on the 3rd of October , at Anspach. Uz produced a collection of odes and songs, which, although they rank among the higher compositions of his day, contain but little that would be satisfactory to us now. He took Horace for his model, and imitated the Roman lyrist as far as his abi- lities allowed him. That Uz was possessed of a certain degree of talent, no competent judge will ever think of disputing; for he evinced a turn for poetry, of which his "Theodicee" may be alleged as an indisputable sample; only he did not work up his powers to the point of even comparative perfection.

Although German literature had' been gradually improving since the days of Opitz and Hallee it had not hitherto reached that high ground on which Kxop. Though these two last named writers present so great a contrast to each other ; and though so little consideration is now given to them, theii' historical importance remains undiminished. They are the first beginnings of a chain in which Lessing, Herder, Goethe and Schiller became afterwards the chief links, and which raised and established the national literature.

What Klopstock began, and Lessing and Herder continued, reached its maturity in the works of those two great geniuses, Goethe and Schiller. But Ellopstock's was the master-mind that began this new era. It was in his soul, says Fr. Schlegel, " ein erhabener Begriff von einer neueu und besonders deutschen Poesie. But with these principles he combined a talent without which his efforts would never have been as successful as they were. He endeavoured to give the German language a greater power of expression, and to infuse into it a stronger feeling of na- tionality: And, with regard to the character of poetiy itself, he observed " der Geist bilde fiir die Dichtkunst den eigentlichen Gehalt.

Manmochte sagen er ziehe Allem, was er behandelt, den Korper aus, um es zu Geist zu machen. He endeavoured to combine, in his poetry, the picturesque and musical character of Haller's writings with the wisdom of those of Hagedorn. In addition to this, Klopstock was the original founder of German metrics. He distinguished and adapted the principles and rules of ancient metre with a master's hand, and with thfe tact of a true poet.

ISo one, says Gervinus, in his masterly essay on Klopstock, no one up to that time had caught the simple grandeur of the old Hebrew poetry, or the genuine spirit of the Greeks and Romans, more success- fully than Klopstock, in some of his Odes; in which we seem to recognize the very strains of David, or Horace, or even Ossian, which latter poet was as yet unknown. This gift neither Lessing nor Wieland possessed ; and it was only Herder who could imitate it, until Goethe appropriated it to himself with the unmatched originality of genius, it was, moreover, Klop- stock who used the Hexameter for the first time with real power and success.

In this metre, in which he wrote his "Messias," we possess only two other great classical productions, Voss' "Luise," and Goethe's "Hermann and Dorothea. It was from the same sources whence Handel and Bach derived their musical renown, that Klopstock drew his poetical inspira- tion. These are the main characteristics of Klopstock's writings ; and to them chiefly must be attributed the high eminence he obtained in German literature, as a classical poet. His father was a "Kommls- sionsrath. Accordingly, he left Jena for Leipzig, Avhere we find him making one in the metrical confederation organized by Zacharia, Rabener, and the two Schle- gels.

Here he laid the foundation-stone of his high and sacred design — lit is worthy of observation, that the first masteipiece of modern German literature was a religious one , — the first three cantos of his " Messiad " appearing in , in a Bremish perio- KLOPSTOOK. They were received with enthusiasm. Die deutsche poetische Literatur seit Klopstock und Leasing.

The idea of this poem was evidently suggested to Klopstock by the Holy Scriptures, where indeed he found his whole scheme unfolded. All he had to do, was to surpass, as it were, the evangeUc records, so far at least, as to exhibit in his transcript a more starthng sequence of events, a greater diversity of characters, and more intricacy of plot; so that he might fashion the whole into one glorious and homogeneous epic. England can certainly boast, of a "Messiad" of another sort, yet no less sterling and valuable, in Milton's " Paradise Lost ; " but the subject is so differently treated, that a comparison of the two poems would be vain.

To such as wish to form a due estimate of the " Messias ," we would recommend the perusal of those parts especially, wherein the distinctive quality of Klopstock's muse exhibits itself with pecuUar success, and where the great power of this writer is consequently most conspicuous. The way in which Klopstock wrote, and what he himself thought of the "Messias," as well as the tone of mind at which he had arrived upon the completion of this wonderful performance, are all finely shown in the Ode entitled: The language of this magnificent epic is eminently well chosen and select, and is gradually wrought up more and more to the highest point of literary finish.

Our author worked at it long and assiduously; it was almost a life's labour; and from this reason it is that we find the second part which was not completed until even more exquisite and elaborate than its predecessor, both in diction and style. Madame de StaeTs opinion of Klopstock's Mesias was that it is like a temple, the vaulted majesty of which strikes the imagination, and forces the mind to veneration and adoration of the Eternal Being. He was also a great lyric poet, and at the same time clas- sical in his style, blending, in his first odes especially, the genius of antiquity with the spirit of modern times.

In this description of literature, Klopstock is certainly without a rival: Klopstock is so thoroughly German, so faithful to nature and yet so profound, that perhaps, no bard of our fatherland was ever, in these respects, his equal.

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Sulzer, one of the earliest of German critics, says of him with great truth: Klopstock's " Gelehrtenrepublik ," which came out in , was considered by Goethe and his friends the only genuine asthetical work then extant. New ground was certainly broken by it in the department of criticism; but the work is now obsolete and forgotten ; which is also the case with Klopstock's dramatic compositions. They, indeed, are the least striking of all his productions. A dearth of incident, joined to a poverty of plot, and a hardness of diction, are very observable throughout the whole of them.

The most momentous epoch in the history of German literature is that which is comprehended in the time between the first appearance of Lessing and the death of Goethe. We must now therefore follow more minutely than hitherto the circumstances of its development, and the efforts of each of the great poets in that behalf We begin with LESSING. In strong contrast to Klopstock, stands Lessing, the second greatr eformer of German literature, and the reformer, no less of taste than of art, and of criticism. In Klopstock we find the lyrical element predominant almost to excess: Klopstock is imbued with an earnest belief in the truths of Christianity: Lessing, opposed to the supremacy of any religion.

But the critical acumen of Lessing, and his great knowledge of ancient classical literature, gave him a far superior position to that of Klopstock. In fact Lessing became the real leader oftheintellect of his age; and influenced alike theologians, philosophers, critics, poets and statesmen. The period of reform had already begun in the political world; and the wise laws and able government of Frederick the Great had roused Germany from the torpor into which it had fallen to a healthy national life. On the other hand we must acknowledge the impulse given to Germany from without, chiefly by the writings of Rousseau and Shakspeare.

In the very centre of this intellectual revolution, we iind Lessing, ever active, spreading his influence far and wide , directing taste, criticizing literature and art, making war upon theology and philosophy, and composing poetry and dramatic works. Was the son of a clergyman, and was born at Camenz, the 22nd of Januaiy, He studied theology at Leipzig, in , but the theatre in that town awakening in him a leaning towards the drama, he forthwith addressed himself to this department of letters.

Lessing when in Berlin, lived in intimate friendship with Nicolai and Mendelsohn. Danzel, Lessing, sein Leben und seine Werke. He died at Brunswick on the 15th of February Lessing was the first of modern authors who combined the poetical Ideal with the poetry of real life ; clearing his ground as he went on, and weeding out antiquated notions with a skilful hand. In this labour, whieb we can easily imagine was a very diificult one, his genius proved his best assistance: AsLessing united in his own person the three leading qualifications of poet, philosopher, and critic, we shall be obliged to follow him in the influence he exercised on each of these departments of literature.

Lessing began his literary career by trying liis hand here and there; to feel, as it were, his way into literature. He first wrote criticisms on books, and on Klopstock's "Mes- sias" in particular: These, his own'comedies, he severely criticized in his "Dra- maturgic ;" and in that criticism we can read the vigorous cha- racter of the critic. He said of himself: Man erweiset mir zwar manchmal die Ehre, mich fur den Letzteren zu erkennen, aber nur weil man mich yerkennt.

Aiis einigen dramatischen Versuchen, die ich gewagt habe, sollte man nicht so freigebig folgern. Die altesten von jenen Versuchen sind in den Jahren hingeschrieben, in welchen man Lust und Leichtigkeit so gem fiir Genie halt. Was in den neuern Ertragliches ist, davon bin ich mir selber bewusst, dass ich es einzig und allein der Kritik zu verdanken habe. Ich fiihle die lebendige Quelle nicht in mir, die durcli eigene Kraft sich emporarbeitet, durch eigene Kraft in so reichen, so frischen, so reinen Strahlen aufschiesst ; ich muss Alles durch Druckwerk und Kohren aus mir heraus- pressen.

With this view he wrote his "Epigrams," and "Fables;" and accompanied them with original theories of his own. In con- junction with Mendelssohn he published the tract " Pope, ein Metaphysiker," in ; and in the same year appeared his tragedy "Miss Sarah Sampson," in which he broke through the rules of the French drama, and of French taste in general, which he had imitated in his first comedies , and turned to- wards English literature for his models; Lillo's "Merchant of Loudon" having been his prototype for this tragedy.

And, even in France itself, Diderot made common cause with Lessing against the classical French tragedies, and against Voltaire in particular. His comedy of "Minna von Barnhelm," completed about , is the most celebrated of that era. It is a most spirited and impressive production, no less characteristic than national, and, at its first appearance on the German stage, was reckoned a perfect phenomenon Lessing intended, by "Minna von Barn- helm," to illustrate his desire for vigorous action in dramatic composition ; and we must bear this in mind, in our estimate of the work.

The false rhetoric which we find in " Miss Sarah Sampson ' has altogether disappeared, the dialogue is quick and vivid, and the characters personified are those of daily life. There is no false poetry in this drama ; no imaginative fiction ; it is thoroughly national, and identified with German customs and feeling.

That Minna von Barnhelm does not possess those quaUtiea which the critics of our day demand of a comedy is true enough; for there are many characteristic deficiencies in it, and some coarse jests, which often mar the real pleasure of the piece: The character of Major Tellheim, in Minna, is generally supposed to be a portrait of the poet Kleist.

Again, Lessing's tragedy of " Emilia Galotti," finished in the year , charmed the public into general admiration. This work was the result of his " Dramaturgie ;" and afforded a practical illustration of Shakspeare's influence over him. It was all "ac- tion;" and Herder truly said of it: Borne remarks of it: The next production of Lessing was the grand drama of " Nathan der Weise.

It is rather a poem in defence of toleration in religious matters, than a drama. It demonstrates to perfection how a Jew, a Mussulman, and a Christian, can and do equally perfonn their duty to humanity, and how toleration is the very first thing that ought to be ihtroduced into religion. Nathan is as Hildebrandt says: Nor was it without its weight upon the general body of German literature ; becoming, in point of metrical form, the model on which an immense mass of iambic tragedies were subsequently based.

Lessing's correct taste and profound artistic skill are mani- fested by his " Laokoon ;" a work which is remarkable for the beauty of its style, and the depth of its criticism. The composition of this extraordinary disquisition arose out of a saying of Win- cltelmann's that the priest "Laokoon," in that celebrated group, cried aloud with pain, like the " Philoctetes " of Sophocles: But the subject of the "Laokoon" was only selected by Lessing as a starting point from whence to determine the respective spheres of art and poetry; and the work is consequently more valuable for its minute disqui- sitions on sBsthetics in general, than as a mere criticism on the celebrated group.

Thus Herder very pointedly called the Laokoon " ein Werk an welchem die drei TluldgSttinnen unter den mensch- lichen Wissenschaften, die Muse der Philosophic, der Poesie und der Kunst des Schonen, geschaftig gewesen sind. But, after all, Lessing's true greatness lies in the fact of his having created an entirely new path of criticism.

And this, his "Kritik," became the basis upon which was to be es- tablished the palladium of our national literature. Lessing had dethroned the authority of the French school in the definition of art, and replaced it by that more sterling investigation and those truer principles of criticism which prevailed among the ancients. For the purpose of illustration, he had for the first time drawn attention to the English, Italian and Spanish au- thors as models; and, since he had lived at Wolffenbiittel, he had pointed out the almost unknown treasures of ancient German literature.

Eschenburg, Bertuch, Bodmer, and others were his assistants in this undertaking. The fruits of his labours appeared long afterwards, in the works of the romantic school. It is incredible what trouble Lessing took to cultivate the barren ground of German literature. He began with badly paid translations; sent articles to newspapers; wrote criticisms; made antiquarian researches ; and edited Journals and Eeviews, and the works of old and new writers; until at last he reached the pre-eminent position he still retains.

Langsam aber'in furchtbare Spannung setzerid, riiekt er mit seinem m ohlgeordneten Heere heran. Noch ehe der Feind gehorig zur Besinnnng kommt, ist sein Mittelpunkt durchbrochen, sind seine Flanken uberflugelt und seine Streit- krafte der Vernichtung preisgegeben. In his epilogue to this work Lessing wrote " Wir sind noch immer die geschworenen Nachahmer alles Aus- liindischen, besonders noch immer die unterthanigen Bewunderer der nie genug bewunderten Franzosen. The influence which Lessing exercised on the German Theatre in general will be understood when we point out that all that was done afterwards by Engel and Ramler at Berlin, by Dalberg at Manheim, by Goethe at Weimar, by Gotter at Gotha, by Klingemann at Brunswick, by Tieck at Dresden, and by Immermann at Diisseldorf was the result of that powerful impetus which he originally gave.

And now we have only to glance finally at one more of those powerful performances of Lessing which we find in his polemic writings.

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The first wanted to reduce religion to its mere moral laws, apart from anj- emotional feeling: Lessing wished to mediate between all these parties ; and thus Involved himself in war with all. It was at this time that the renowned " Wolfenbiittler Fragmente" made their appearance; which were, however, originally written by Eeimarus, who lived at Hamburg. These were answered by GoBTZ ; and a paper war was originated between him and Les- sing, such as Luther had carried on before with Eck and Emser — a war of light against darkness. Lessing also crushed, in his " antiquarisohe Briefe," Klotz, a Professor at Halle ; one of those whose chief claim to notice was that he trifled with Horace and Anacreon in affected verses, but who had nevertheless the audacity to attack our author.

From him he received a very strict religious education, which was afterwards continued in an establishment strongly tinged with pietistic principles. Wieland showed considerable poetic talent, as early as nine years old; and at twelve he wrote both Latin and German verse with great facility.

His studies were completed at Erfurt and Tubingen. In our poet responded to the invitation given him by the duchess Anna Amalia of Weimar, to fill the office of preceptor to the young Princes. Here he lived in intimate connexion with Goethe, Herder and Schiller. He died on the 20th of January Wieland was the very reverse of Klopstock in thought and style: But he materially furthered the progress of German literature; and became, in- deed, an indispensable link in its historical chain of worthies. The influence which Klopstock had obtained by his great poem " der Messias" Wieland achieved by his novels.

Wieland made them both readable, and grace- ful; though not free from a slight tincture of the licentious- ness of the French school. His works were consequently read by the higher German public, who, at that time, despised German and patronized only French, literature. Wieland's novels were thus a public benefit; for, however lax their morals, they were amusing, and their style easy and graceful.

His fancy too was luxuriant; and he told his story with great vivacity, wit, and humour. No wonder therefore that Goethe observed of him: He was " the right man at the right time ;" and hence his popu- larity, and the high position conceded to him. His claims do not however end here. We must not only consider him as a writer of romances, but as a man of consi- derable attainments, by which he raised the standard of German literature. To obtain a clear and unbiassed insight into Wie- land's position, we must remember the conventional tone which Voltaire had given to French society, and the widely spread influence which, that author had obtained over the whole con- tinent of Europe: It was therefore of considerable impor- tance that a man like Wieland should appear, qualified by his versatility of talent to express himself in the style then so much admired.

He opposed that which was foreign to the German mind, whilst he retained the former elegance and lux- uriance of style and diction. He introduced by degrees the French, English, Italian, Spanish and old classical literature into Germany; and thus did more than any other writer of the period, to obtain currency for the German language, and to induce the upper classes to mate use of it, in the place of French; which had hitherto been the language in which they spoke, wrote and thought.

Wieland's biographer, Gruber, has therefore said of him with no less emphasis than truth: Wieland followed the bad taste of the time which prevailed so much in England; and abridged and altered the text of Shakspeare; but yet what he did translate was creditable. He, further, introduced the litera- ture of ancient Greece and Eome to the German public, by translating the plays of Aristophanes, and Cicero's unrivalled letters. His translation of Horace was, however, the most ster- ling and successful. This outline will give an idea of the ex- traordinary versatility of Wieland's talents, of his never ceasing industry, his works extend to 63 Volumes and of the ascen- dency he obtained over the public.

Klopstock greatly influenced Wieland at the outset of his literary career; but the religious element to which the former gave expression in his " Empfindungen eines Christen " was foreign to his nature ; and his intimate connection with Bodmer, and his stay at Zurich, where he first became acquainted with the new and rising generation of writers, gave his mind a dif- ferent tendency. It was not, however, until he had made deeper studies of the ancient Classics and of Shakspeare, nor until Lessing's and Nicolai's Criticisms had influenced his mind, that his powers developed themselves to any great extent.

The impulse in this new direction he received during a lengthened stay with his friend the Count de Stadion, at whose house he first became acquainted with French literature and philosophy. Gervinus marks this period of Wieland's mental development with great precision: Unvennerkt war er aus alien Klopstock-bodmerischen Theo- rien zu denen der Berliner hiniibergesetzt. Er lernte, wie es Mendelssohn verlangt hatte, von jenen Deisten und Philo- sophen den Menschen selbst zum Gegenstand seines Nachden- kens zu machen ; er ward dadurch auf psychologische Betrach- tungen und Erfahrungen gefuhrt, die ihm Lessing gewUnscht hatte.

Our author has, perhaps, been most successful in this order of didactic poetry: An almost unrivalled fluency is uniformly discernible in these compositions. His "Oberon," completed in , is bh chef-d'oeuvre; there being in this poem a beauty that may be felt, rather than de- scribed. The whole poem is a perfect piece of poetic fancy; and is coloured with the most romantic hues. The Criticism of Goethe on Oberon is characteristic. He wrote to Lavater: Gervinus characterises it thus: In the list of Wieland's prose works we must first record his "Don Silvio von Rosalva," finished in This tale is an imitation of the " Don Quixote " of Cervantes, and one of its most amusing portions the story — introduced as an episode — of the "Prinz Biribinker.

In this work he determines, with the finesse of a Frenchman, the line of demarcation between wisdom and virtue. Tthe truth, however, of this novel of "Aga- thon" is, that it is Wielaud's own history in a Greek dress. This is, in point of style, one of his most polished, and iluent novels and it ranks as the best fiction of his time. Again his "Abderiten," a good natured satire on the ridiculous man- ners peculiar to small country towns, is a first rate production.

He pointed it out himself, as "ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des menschlichen Verstandes. It touched on all the questions of the day, and reminds one of the " Lettres Persanes " of Montesquieu, and the writings of Rousseau and Voltaire, which served Wieland more or less as models. By these productions Wieland had placed himself in antagonism with the literary celebrities of his time. Opposed by Klopstock, Bodmer and the Anacreontists, no less than by the Berliners and Lessing, Wieland's " Grazienphilosophie " was further as- sailed in the "Goettinger Anzeiger;" and even his friends re- proached him on the subject of "Agathon," etc.

Theological teachers in the University prohibited the reading of these poisonous writings ; preachers denounced them from the pulpits of Erfurt, during his stay there ; and to crown all, the Klopstock School at Goettingen, burned Wieland's works on Klopstock's birthday, Voss wrote cutting Epi- grams against his " Schandgesange ;" and Claudius, in his pious way, prayed for the fallen poet.

It was only after the tone of Wieland began to change that Herder became his friend ; after which, Klopstock and Voss, being convinced of his per- sonal worth and morahty, as well as of his talents, became also more lenient and friendly towards him. Wieland edited a German periodical "der deutsche Merkur," through which he aimed at educating the German puWic. He afterwards changed its title to that of the " attische Museum " ; all the latter portion of his life being exclusively devoted to classical philology. At Jena he prosecuted the study of jurisprudence, and subsequently became the librarian of the elector Friedrich Carl Joseph, at Mainz.

He died on the 22nd of Juno , at Aschaffenburg.