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After the Arab raids on the Adriatic coast circa and the retreat of the Imperial Navy, the Narentines continued their raids of Venetian waters, causing new conflicts with the Italians in — The Venetians futilely continued to fight them throughout the 10th and 11th centuries. Athelstan drove them back. In the 12th century the coasts of western Scandinavia were plundered by Curonians and Oeselians from the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea.
In the 13th and 14th century, pirates threatened the Hanseatic routes and nearly brought sea trade to the brink of extinction. The Victual Brothers of Gotland were a companionship of privateers who later turned to piracy as the Likedeelers. Until about , maritime trade in both the North Sea and the Baltic Sea was seriously in danger of attack by the pirates. Thomas Milhorn mentions a certain Englishman named William Maurice, convicted of piracy in , as the first person known to have been hanged, drawn and quartered , [15] which would indicate that the then-ruling King Henry III took an especially severe view of this crime.
The ushkuiniks were Novgorodian pirates who looted the cities on the Volga and Kama Rivers in the 14th century. As early as Byzantine times, the Maniots one of Greece's toughest populations were known as pirates. The Maniots considered piracy as a legitimate response to the fact that their land was poor and it became their main source of income. The main victims of Maniot pirates were the Ottomans but the Maniots also targeted ships of European countries. Zaporizhian Sich was a pirate republic in Europe from the 16th through to the 18th century. Situated in Cossack territory in the remote steppe of Eastern Europe , it was populated with Ukrainian peasants that had run away from their feudal masters, outlaws, destitute gentry, run-away slaves from Turkish galleys , etc.
The remoteness of the place and the rapids at the Dnepr river effectively guarded the place from invasions of vengeful powers. The main target of the inhabitants of Zaporizhian Sich who called themselves "Cossacks" were rich settlements at the Black Sea shores of Ottoman Empire and Crimean Khanate. The earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the Sea Peoples who threatened the ships sailing in the Aegean and Mediterranean waters in the 14th century BC. In classical antiquity , the Phoenicians , Illyrians and Tyrrhenians were known as pirates.
In the pre-classical era, the ancient Greeks condoned piracy as a viable profession; it apparently was widespread and "regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living". By the era of Classical Greece , piracy was looked upon as a "disgrace" to have as a profession. In the 3rd century BC, pirate attacks on Olympos city in Anatolia brought impoverishment.
Among some of the most famous ancient pirateering peoples were the Illyrians, a people populating the western Balkan peninsula. It was not until BC when the Romans finally decisively beat the Illyrian fleets that their threat was ended. Though less famous and romanticized than Atlantic or Caribbean pirates, corsairs in the Mediterranean equaled or outnumbered the former at any given point in history. They were, however, of a smaller type than battle galleys, often referred to as galiots or fustas. In general, pirate craft were extremely difficult for patrolling craft to actually hunt down and capture.
Purpose-built galleys or hybrid sailing vessels were built by the English in Jamaica in [25] and by the Spanish in the late 16th century. The expansion of Muslim power through the Ottoman conquest of large parts of the eastern Mediterranean in the 15th and 16th century resulted in extensive piracy on sea trading. The so-called Barbary corsairs began to operate out of North African ports in Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Morocco around , preying primarily on the shipping of Christian powers, including massive slave raids at sea as well as on land.
The Barbary corsairs were nominally under Ottoman suzerainty , but had considerable independence to prey on the enemies of Islam. The Muslim corsairs were technically often privateers with support from legitimate, though highly belligerent, states. They considered themselves as holy Muslim warriors, or ghazis , [28] carrying on the tradition of fighting the incursion of Western Christians that had begun with the First Crusade late in the 11th century.
Coastal villages and towns of Italy, Spain and islands in the Mediterranean were frequently attacked by Muslim corsairs and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants; after the Barbary corsairs occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland. The Barbary corsairs had a direct Christian counterpart in the military order of the Knights of Saint John that operated out first out of Rhodes and after Malta , though they were less numerous and took fewer slaves. Both sides waged war against the respective enemies of their faith, and both used galleys as their primary weapons.
Both sides also used captured or bought galley slaves to man the oars of their ships; the Muslims relying mostly on captured Christians, the Christians using a mix of Muslim slaves, Christian convicts and a small contingency of buonavoglie , free men who out of desperation or poverty had taken to rowing. Historian Peter Earle has described the two sides of the Christian-Muslim Mediterranean conflict as "mirror image[s] of maritime predation, two businesslike fleets of plunderers set against each other". The system has been described as a "massive, multinational protection racket", [33] the Christian side of which was not ended until in the Napoleonic Wars.
The Barbary corsairs were finally quelled as late as the s, effectively ending the last vestiges of counter-crusading jihad. Piracy off the Barbary coast was often assisted by competition among European powers in the 17th century. France encouraged the corsairs against Spain, and later Britain and Holland supported them against France. However, by the second half of the 17th century the greater European naval powers began to initiate reprisals to intimidate the Barbary States into making peace with them. The most successful of the Christian states in dealing with the corsair threat was England.
A particular bone of contention was the tendency of foreign ships to pose as English to avoid attack. However, growing English naval power and increasingly persistent operations against the corsairs proved increasingly costly for the Barbary States. During the reign of Charles II a series of English expeditions won victories over raiding squadrons and mounted attacks on their home ports which permanently ended the Barbary threat to English shipping. In a bombardment from a Royal Navy squadron led by Sir John Narborough and further defeats at the hands of a squadron under Arthur Herbert negotiated a lasting peace until with Tunis and Tripoli.
France, which had recently emerged as a leading naval power, achieved comparable success soon afterwards, with bombardments of Algiers in , and securing a lasting peace, while Tripoli was similarly coerced in In and the Spaniards also bombarded Algiers in an effort to stem the piracy. Until the American Declaration of Independence in , British treaties with the North African states protected American ships from the Barbary corsairs.
Morocco , which in was the first independent nation to publicly recognize the United States , became in the first Barbary power to seize an American vessel after independence. While the United States managed to secure peace treaties, these obliged it to pay tribute for protection from attack. However, Algiers broke the peace treaty after only two years, and subsequently refused to implement the treaty until compelled to do so by Britain in In , the sacking of Palma on the island of Sardinia by a Tunisian squadron, which carried off inhabitants, roused widespread indignation.
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Britain had by this time banned the slave trade and was seeking to induce other countries to do likewise. This led to complaints from states which were still vulnerable to the corsairs that Britain's enthusiasm for ending the trade in African slaves did not extend to stopping the enslavement of Europeans and Americans by the Barbary States.
In order to neutralise this objection and further the anti-slavery campaign, in Lord Exmouth was sent to secure new concessions from Tripoli , Tunis , and Algiers , including a pledge to treat Christian captives in any future conflict as prisoners of war rather than slaves and the imposition of peace between Algiers and the kingdoms of Sardinia and Sicily. On his first visit he negotiated satisfactory treaties and sailed for home. While he was negotiating, a number of Sardinian fishermen who had settled at Bona on the Tunisian coast were brutally treated without his knowledge. As Sardinians they were technically under British protection and the government sent Exmouth back to secure reparation.
Both Algiers and Tunis made fresh concessions as a result. However, securing uniform compliance with a total prohibition of slave-raiding, which was traditionally of central importance to the North African economy, presented difficulties beyond those faced in ending attacks on ships of individual nations, which had left slavers able to continue their accustomed way of life by preying on less well-protected peoples. Algiers subsequently renewed its slave-raiding, though on a smaller scale.
Measures to be taken against the city's government were discussed at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in Corsair activity based in Algiers did not entirely cease until its conquest by France in At one point, there were nearly 1, pirates located in Madagascar. The most famous pirate utopia is that of the probably fictional Captain Misson and his pirate crew, who allegedly founded the free colony of Libertatia in northern Madagascar in the late 17th century, until it was destroyed in a surprise attack by the island natives in In East Asia by the ninth century, populations centered mostly around merchant activities in coastal Shandong and Jiangsu provinces.
Wealthy benefactors, including Jang Bogo established Silla Buddhist temples in the region. Jang Bogo had become incensed at the treatment of his fellow countrymen, who in the unstable milieu of late Tang often fell victim to coastal pirates or inland bandits. After returning to Silla around , and in possession of a formidable private fleet headquartered at Cheonghae Wando , Jang Bogo petitioned the Silla king Heungdeok r. Heungdeok gave Jang an army of 10, men to establish and man the defensive works. The remnants of Cheonghae Garrison can still be seen on Jang islet just off Wando's southern coast.
Jang's force, though nominally bequeathed by the Silla king, was effectively under his own control. Jang became arbiter of Yellow Sea commerce and navigation. From the 13th century, Wokou based in Japan made their debut in East Asia, initiating invasions that would persist for years. The wokou raids peaked in the s , but by then the wokou were mostly Chinese smugglers who reacted strongly against the Ming dynasty 's strict prohibition on private sea trade.
In South East Asia , [40] piracy began with the retreating Mongol Yuan fleet after the betrayal by their Javanese allies who, incidentally, would found the empire of Majapahit after the Mongols left. They preferred the junk, a ship using a more robust sail layout. Marooned navy officers, consisting mostly of Cantonese and Hokkien tribesmen, set up their small gangs near river estuaries , mainly to protect themselves. They recruited locals as common foot-soldiers known as lang Malay: They survived by utilizing their well trained pugilists, as well as marine and navigation skills, mostly along Sumatran and Javanese estuaries.
Their strength and ferocity coincided with the impending trade growth of the maritime silk and spice routes. They would be used as coast guards, or sent on recon missions to deal with Arab piracy in the Arabian Sea. Their function is similar to the 18th century privateers , used by the Royal Navy. Starting in the 14th century, the Deccan Southern Peninsular region of India was divided into two entities: Continuous wars demanded frequent resupplies of fresh horses, which were imported through sea routes from Persia and Africa.
This trade was subjected to frequent raids by thriving bands of pirates based in the coastal cities of Western India. One of such was Timoji , who operated off Anjadip Island both as a privateer by seizing horse traders, that he rendered to the raja of Honavar and as a pirate who attacked the Kerala merchant fleets that traded pepper with Gujarat. During the 16th and 17th centuries, there was frequent European piracy against Mughal Indian merchants, especially those en route to Mecca for Hajj.
The situation came to a head when the Portuguese attacked and captured the vessel Rahimi which belonged to Mariam Zamani the Mughal queen, which led to the Mughal seizure of the Portuguese town Daman. The Bugis sailors of South Sulawesi were infamous as pirates who used to range as far west as Singapore and as far north as the Philippines in search of targets for piracy.
Pirates plagued the Tonkin Gulf area. During the Qing period, Chinese pirate fleets grew increasingly large. The effects large-scale piracy had on the Chinese economy were immense. They preyed voraciously on China's junk trade, which flourished in Fujian and Guangdong and was a vital artery of Chinese commerce. Pirate fleets exercised hegemony over villages on the coast, collecting revenue by exacting tribute and running extortion rackets.
In , the menacing Zheng Yi inherited the fleet of his cousin, captain Zheng Qi, whose death provided Zheng Yi with considerably more influence in the world of piracy. Zheng Yi and his wife, Zheng Yi Sao who would eventually inherit the leadership of his pirate confederacy then formed a pirate coalition that, by , consisted of over ten thousand men.
Their military might alone was sufficient to combat the Qing navy. However, a combination of famine, Qing naval opposition, and internal rifts crippled piracy in China around the s, and it has never again reached the same status. Major battles were fought such as those at Ty-ho Bay and the Tonkin River though pirate junks continued operating off China for years more. However, some British and American individual citizens also volunteered to serve with Chinese pirates to fight against European forces.
The British offered rewards for the capture of westerners serving with Chinese pirates. During the Second Opium War and the Taiping Rebellion , piratical junks were again destroyed in large numbers by British naval forces but ultimately it wasn't until the s and s that fleets of pirate junks ceased to exist. The southern coast of the Persian Gulf was known to the British from the late 18th century as the Pirate Coast , where control of the seaways of the Persian Gulf was asserted by the Qawasim and other local maritime powers. Memories of the privations carried out on the coast by Portuguese raiders under Albuquerque were long and local powers antipathetic as a consequence to Christian powers asserting dominance of their coastal waters.
This was cemented by the Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity in , resulting in the Pirate Coast being renamed to the Trucial Coast, along with several emirates being recognised by the British as Trucial States. Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalahimah , the charismatic ruler who successfully became the most popular pirate in the region, was also the first to wear an eyepatch after losing an eye in battle. The classic era of piracy in the Caribbean lasted from circa until the mids.
This involved considerable seaborne trade, and a general economic improvement: French buccaneers were established on northern Hispaniola as early as , [54] but lived at first mostly as hunters rather than robbers; their transition to full-time piracy was gradual and motivated in part by Spanish efforts to wipe out both the buccaneers and the prey animals on which they depended. The buccaneers' migration from Hispaniola's mainland to the more defensible offshore island of Tortuga limited their resources and accelerated their piratical raids.
According to Alexandre Exquemelin , a buccaneer and historian who remains a major source on this period, the Tortuga buccaneer Pierre Le Grand pioneered the settlers' attacks on galleons making the return voyage to Spain. The growth of buccaneering on Tortuga was augmented by the English capture of Jamaica from Spain in The early English governors of Jamaica freely granted letters of marque to Tortuga buccaneers and to their own countrymen, while the growth of Port Royal provided these raiders with a far more profitable and enjoyable place to sell their booty.
In the s, the new French governor of Tortuga, Bertrand d'Ogeron, similarly provided privateering commissions both to his own colonists and to English cutthroats from Port Royal. These conditions brought Caribbean buccaneering to its zenith.
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A new phase of piracy began in the s as English pirates began to look beyond the Caribbean for treasure. The fall of Britain's Stuart kings had restored the traditional enmity between Britain and France, thus ending the profitable collaboration between English Jamaica and French Tortuga.
The devastation of Port Royal by an earthquake in further reduced the Caribbean's attractions by destroying the pirates' chief market for fenced plunder. At the same time, England's less favored colonies, including Bermuda , New York , and Rhode Island , had become cash-starved by the Navigation Acts , which restricted trade with foreign ships. Merchants and governors eager for coin were willing to overlook and even underwrite pirate voyages; one colonial official defended a pirate because he thought it "very harsh to hang people that brings in gold to these provinces.
India's economic output was large during this time, especially in high-value luxury goods like silk and calico which made ideal pirate booty; [59] at the same time, no powerful navies plied the Indian Ocean, leaving both local shipping and the various East India companies' vessels vulnerable to attack. Between and , a succession of peace treaties was signed which ended the War of the Spanish Succession. With the end of this conflict, thousands of seamen, including Britain's paramilitary privateers, were relieved of military duty.
The result was a large number of trained, idle sailors at a time when the cross-Atlantic colonial shipping trade was beginning to boom. In addition, Europeans who had been pushed by unemployment to become sailors and soldiers involved in slaving were often enthusiastic to abandon that profession and turn to pirating, giving pirate captains for many years a constant pool of trained European recruits to be found in west African waters and coasts.
In , pirates launched a major raid on Spanish divers trying to recover gold from a sunken treasure galleon near Florida. The nucleus of the pirate force was a group of English ex-privateers, all of whom would soon be enshrined in infamy: The attack was successful, but contrary to their expectations, the governor of Jamaica refused to allow Jennings and their cohorts to spend their loot on his island.
With Kingston and the declining Port Royal closed to them, Jennings and his comrades founded a new pirate base at Nassau , on the island of New Providence in the Bahamas, which had been abandoned during the war. Until the arrival of governor Woodes Rogers three years later, Nassau would be home for these pirates and their many recruits.
Shipping traffic between Africa, the Caribbean, and Europe began to soar in the 18th century, a model that was known as triangular trade , and was a rich target for piracy. Trade ships sailed from Europe to the African coast, trading manufactured goods and weapons in exchange for slaves. The traders would then sail to the Caribbean to sell the slaves, and return to Europe with goods such as sugar, tobacco and cocoa. Another triangular trade saw ships carry raw materials, preserved cod, and rum to Europe, where a portion of the cargo would be sold for manufactured goods, which along with the remainder of the original load were transported to the Caribbean, where they were exchanged for sugar and molasses, which with some manufactured articles were borne to New England.
Ships in the triangular trade made money at each stop. As part of the peace settlement of the War of the Spanish succession , Britain obtained the asiento , a Spanish government contract, to supply slaves to Spain's new world colonies, providing British traders and smugglers more access to the traditionally closed Spanish markets in America. This arrangement also contributed heavily to the spread of piracy across the western Atlantic at this time. Shipping to the colonies boomed simultaneously with the flood of skilled mariners after the war.
Merchant shippers used the surplus of sailors' labor to drive wages down, cutting corners to maximize their profits, and creating unsavory conditions aboard their vessels. Merchant sailors suffered from mortality rates as high or higher than the slaves being transported Rediker, Living conditions were so poor that many sailors began to prefer a freer existence as a pirate.
The increased volume of shipping traffic also could sustain a large body of brigands preying upon it. Most of these pirates were eventually hunted down by the Royal Navy and killed or captured; several battles were fought between the brigands and the colonial powers on both land and sea.
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Piracy in the Caribbean declined for the next several decades after , but by the s many pirates roamed the waters though they were not as bold or successful as their predecessors. The most successful pirates of the era were Jean Lafitte and Roberto Cofresi. Lafitte is considered by many to be the last buccaneer due to his army of pirates and fleet of pirate ships which held bases in and around the Gulf of Mexico.
Lafitte and his men participated in the War of battle of New Orleans. Cofresi's base was in Mona Island , Puerto Rico, from where he disrupted the commerce throughout the region. He became the last major target of the international anti-piracy operations. The elimination of piracy from European waters expanded to the Caribbean in the 18th century, West Africa and North America by the s and by the s even the Indian Ocean was a difficult location for pirates to operate. England began to strongly turn against piracy at the turn of the 18th century, as it was increasingly damaging to the country's economic and commercial prospects in the region.
The Piracy Act of for the "more effectual suppression of Piracy" [62] made it easier to capture, try and convict pirates by lawfully enabling acts of piracy to be "examined, inquired of, tried, heard and determined, and adjudged in any place at sea, or upon the land, in any of his Majesty's islands, plantations, colonies, dominions, forts, or factories. Commissioners of these vice-admiralty courts were also vested with "full power and authority" to issue warrants, summon the necessary witnesses, and "to do all thing necessary for the hearing and final determination of any case of piracy, robbery, or felony.
Piracy saw a brief resurgence between the end of the War of the Spanish Succession in and around , as many unemployed seafarers took to piracy as a way to make ends meet when a surplus of sailors after the war led to a decline in wages and working conditions. At the same time, one of the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht that ended the war gave to Great Britain's Royal African Company and other British slavers a thirty-year asiento, or contract, to furnish African slaves to the Spanish colonies, providing British merchants and smugglers potential inroads into the traditionally closed Spanish markets in America and leading to an economic revival for the whole region.
This revived Caribbean trade provided rich new pickings for a wave of piracy. Also contributing to the increase of Caribbean piracy at this time was Spain's breakup of the English logwood settlement at Campeche and the attractions of a freshly sunken silver fleet off the southern Bahamas in Fears over the rising levels of crime and piracy, political discontent, concern over crowd behaviour at public punishments, and an increased determination by parliament to suppress piracy, resulted in the Piracy Act of and of These established a seven-year penal transportation to North America as a possible punishment for those convicted of lesser felonies, or as a possible sentence that capital punishment might be commuted to by royal pardon.
After , piracy in the classic sense became extremely rare as increasingly effective anti-piracy measures were taken by the Royal Navy making it impossible for any pirate to pursue an effective career for long. By , the British Royal Navy had approximately vessels and by ; a big increase from the two vessels England had possessed in Many pirates did not surrender and were killed at the point of capture; notorious pirate Edward Teach, or "Blackbeard", was hunted down by Lieutenant Robert Maynard at Ocracoke Inlet off the coast of North Carolina on 22 November and killed.
Roberts' death shocked the pirate world, as well as the Royal Navy. The local merchants and civilians had thought him invincible, and some considered him a hero. Also crucial to the end of this era of piracy was the loss of the pirates' last Caribbean safe haven at Nassau. In the early 19th century, piracy along the East and Gulf Coasts of North America as well as in the Caribbean increased again. Jean Lafitte was just one of hundreds of pirates operating in American and Caribbean waters between the years of and After fleeing for hours, he was ambushed and captured inland.
The United States landed shore parties on several islands in the Caribbean in pursuit of pirates; Cuba was a major haven. By the s piracy had died out again, and the navies of the region focused on the slave trade. About the time of the Mexican—American War in , the United States Navy had grown strong and numerous enough to eliminate the pirate threat in the West Indies.
By the s, ships had begun to convert to steam propulsion, so the Age of Sail and the classical idea of pirates in the Caribbean ended. Privateering, similar to piracy, continued as an asset in war for a few more decades and proved to be of some importance during the naval campaigns of the American Civil War. Privateering would remain a tool of European states until the midth century's Declaration of Paris. But letters of marque were given out much more sparingly by governments and were terminated as soon as conflicts ended.
The idea of "no peace beyond the Line" was a relic that had no meaning by the more settled late 18th and early 19th centuries. Due to the strategic situation of this Spanish archipelago as a crossroads of maritime routes and commercial bridge between Europe , Africa and America , [65] this was one of the places on the planet with the greatest pirate presence.
In the Canary Islands , the following stand out: Among those born in the archipelago stands out above all Amaro Pargo , whom the monarch Felipe V of Spain frequently benefited in his commercial incursions and corsairs. River piracy , in late 18th-midth century America, was primarily concentrated along the Ohio River and Mississippi River valleys. In , at Tower Rock , the U. Army dragoons , possibly, from the frontier army post up river at Fort Kaskaskia , on the Illinois side opposite St. Louis, raided and drove out the river pirates. Stack Island was also associated with river pirates and counterfeiters in the late s.
In , the last major river pirate activity took place, on the Upper Mississippi River, and river piracy in this area came to an abrupt end, when a group of flatboatmen raided the island, wiping out the river pirates. From —, Cave-In-Rock was the principal outlaw lair and headquarters of river pirate activity in the Ohio River region, from which Samuel Mason led a gang of river pirates on the Ohio River. River piracy continued on the lower Mississippi River, from the early s to the mids, declining as a result of direct military action and local law enforcement and regulator-vigilante groups that uprooted and swept out pockets of outlaw resistance.
Pirates had a system of hierarchy on board their ships determining how captured money was distributed. However, pirates were more egalitarian than any other area of employment at the time. In fact, pirate quartermasters were a counterbalance to the captain and had the power to veto his orders. The majority of plunder was in the form of cargo and ship's equipment, with medicines the most highly prized.
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