Racists

Scientific racism is the pseudoscientific belief that empirical evidence exists to support or justify racism (racial discrimination), racial inferiority, or racial superiority. Historically, scientific racist ideas received credence in the scientific.
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My heart is broken. True is about to deal with what Khloe dealt with her entire life. Bullying but now with a colorism and racism. All them babies look a like. Racism will make you do backflips to fight it. I was trying to stay silent and in my lane about how cute the kid is. I hope she tells her how beautiful her complexion is. I just want to protect that sweet baby by any means necessary.

Scientific racism

True Thompson was born in April to Khloe and her boyfriend Tristan Thompson, and is a perfect innocent little angel. What type of disgusting human being are you? The origin of the root word "race" is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French , but there is no such agreement on how it came into Latin-based languages, generally. A recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ra's , which means "head, beginning, origin" or the Hebrew rosh , which has a similar meaning.

An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary simply defines racialism as "An earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it," and cites it in a quote. By the end of World War II , racism had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with racialism: The term "race hatred" had also been used by sociologist Frederick Hertz in the late s.

As its history indicates, the popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into widespread usage in the Western world in the s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism , which saw "race" as a naturally given political unit.

Today, some scholars of racism prefer to use the concept in the plural racisms in order to emphasize its many different forms that do not easily fall under a single definition and they also argue that different forms of racism have characterized different historical periods and geographical areas.

First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups; second, a set of ideas an ideology about racial differences; and, third, discriminatory actions practices. Though many countries around the globe have passed laws related to race and discrimination, the first significant international human rights instrument developed by the United Nations UN was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights UDHR. The UDHR recognizes that if people are to be treated with dignity, they require economic rights , social rights including education , and the rights to cultural and political participation and civil liberty.

It further states that everyone is entitled to these rights "without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour , sex , language , religion , political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. The UN does not define "racism"; however, it does define "racial discrimination": They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form an integral part of humanity.

The UN definition of racial discrimination does not make any distinction between discrimination based on ethnicity and race, in part because the distinction between the two has been a matter of debate among academics , including anthropologists. In Norway , the word "race" has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination because the use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical.

Sociologists , in general, recognize "race" as a social construct. This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on the basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies. Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and institutional level. While much of the research and work on racism during the last half-century or so has concentrated on "white racism" in the Western world, historical accounts of race-based social practices can be found across the globe.

In studies of these majority white societies, the aggregate of material and cultural advantages is usually termed " white privilege ". Race and race relations are prominent areas of study in sociology and economics. Much of the sociological literature focuses on white racism. Some of the earliest sociological works on racism were penned by sociologist W. Du Bois wrote, "The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line. In sociology and social psychology , racial identity and the acquisition of that identity, is often used as a variable in racism studies.

Racial ideologies and racial identity affect individuals' perception of race and discrimination. Racial centrality the extent to which a culture recognizes individuals' racial identity appears to affect the degree of discrimination African American young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buffer the detrimental emotional effects of that discrimination. Some sociologists also argue that, particularly in the West where racism is often negatively sanctioned in society, racism has changed from being a blatant to a more covert expression of racial prejudice.

Why are people racist?

The "newer" more hidden and less easily detectable forms of racism—which can be considered embedded in social processes and structures—are more difficult to explore as well as challenge. It has been suggested that, while in many countries overt or explicit racism has become increasingly taboo , even among those who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an implicit or aversive racism is still maintained subconsciously.

This process has been studied extensively in social psychology as implicit associations and implicit attitudes , a component of implicit cognition. Implicit attitudes are evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude object or the self. These evaluations are generally either favorable or unfavorable. They come about from various influences in the individual experience.

Therefore, subconscious racism can influence our visual processing and how our minds work when we are subliminally exposed to faces of different colors. In thinking about crime, for example, social psychologist Jennifer L. Eberhardt of Stanford University holds that, "blackness is so associated with crime you're ready to pick out these crime objects.

Thus, racist thoughts and actions can arise from stereotypes and fears of which we are not aware. Language , linguistics and discourse are active areas of study in the humanities , along with literature and the arts. Discourse analysis seeks to reveal the meaning of race and the actions of racists through careful study of the ways in which these factors of human society are described and discussed in various written and oral works. Van Dijk , for example, examines the different ways in which descriptions of racism and racist actions are depicted by the perpetrators of such actions as well as by their victims.

Du Bois, represents early African-American literature that describes the author's experiences with racism when he was traveling in the South as an African American. Much American fictional literature has focused on issues of racism and the black "racial experience" in the US, including works written by whites such as Uncle Tom's Cabin , To Kill a Mockingbird , and Imitation of Life , or even the non-fiction work Black Like Me.

These books, and others like them, feed into what has been called the " white savior narrative in film ", in which the heroes and heroines are white even though the story is about things that happen to black characters. Textual analysis of such writings can contrast sharply with black authors' descriptions of African Americans and their experiences in US society.

African American writers have sometimes been portrayed in African-American studies as retreating from racial issues when they write about " whiteness ", while others identify this as an African American literary tradition called "the literature of white estrangement", part of a multipronged effort to challenge and dismantle white supremacy in the US. According to dictionaries, the word is commonly used to describe prejudice and discrimination based on race. Racism can also be said to describe a condition in society in which a dominant racial group benefits from the oppression of others, whether that group wants such benefits or not.

A Genealogy posits modern racism similarly, focusing on the notion of a dominant group, usually whites, vying for racial purity and progress, rather than an overt or obvious ideology focused on the oppression of nonwhites. In popular usage, as in some academic usage, little distinction is made between "racism" and " ethnocentrism ". Often, the two are listed together as "racial and ethnic" in describing some action or outcome that is associated with prejudice within a majority or dominant group in society.

Furthermore, the meaning of the term racism is often conflated with the terms prejudice, bigotry , and discrimination. Racism is a complex concept that can involve each of those, but it cannot be equated with nor is it synonymous with these other terms. The term is often used in relation to what is seen as prejudice within a minority or subjugated group, as in the concept of reverse racism.

The ideology underlying racism can become manifest in many aspects of social life. Such aspects are described in this section, although the list is not exhaustive. Aversive racism is a form of implicit racism in which a person's unconscious negative evaluations of racial or ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups.

The term was coined by Joel Kovel to describe the subtle racial behaviors of any ethnic or racial group who rationalize their aversion to a particular group by appeal to rules or stereotypes. The motivation for the change is thought to be implicit or subconscious. Experiments have provided empirical support for the existence of aversive racism.


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Aversive racism has been shown to have potentially serious implications for decision making in employment, in legal decisions and in helping behavior. In relation to racism, Color blindness is the disregard of racial characteristics in social interaction , for example in the rejection of affirmative action, as way to address the results of past patterns of discrimination. Critics of this attitude argue that by refusing to attend to racial disparities, racial color blindness in fact unconsciously perpetuates the patterns that produce racial inequality.

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Eduardo Bonilla-Silva argues that color blind racism arises from an "abstract liberalism , biologization of culture, naturalization of racial matters, and minimization of racism". If race is disregarded in predominately white populations, for example, whiteness becomes the normative standard, whereas people of color are othered , and the racism these individuals experience may be minimized or erased.


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Cultural racism is a term used to describe and explain new racial ideologies and practices that have emerged since World War II. It can be defined as societal beliefs and customs that promote the assumption that the products of a given culture, including the language and traditions of that culture are superior to those of other cultures. It shares a great deal with xenophobia , which is often characterised by fear of, or aggression toward, members of an outgroup by members of an ingroup. Cultural racism exists when there is a widespread acceptance of stereotypes concerning different ethnic or population groups.

Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of discrimination caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. During the Spanish colonial period , Spaniards developed a complex caste system based on race, which was used for social control and which also determined a person's importance in society.

Institutional racism also known as structural racism, state racism or systemic racism is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. Stokely Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".

Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion, and human possibility and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples". Othering is the term used by some to describe a system of discrimination whereby the characteristics of a group are used to distinguish them as separate from the norm.

Othering plays a fundamental role in the history and continuation of racism. To objectify a culture as something different, exotic or underdeveloped is to generalize that it is not like 'normal' society. Europe's colonial attitude towards the Orient exemplifies this as it was thought that the East was the opposite of the West; feminine where the West was masculine, weak where the West was strong and traditional where the West was progressive.

Much of the process of othering relies on imagined difference, or the expectation of difference. Spatial difference can be enough to conclude that "we" are "here" and the "others" are over "there". Racial discrimination refers to discrimination against someone on the basis of their race. Racial segregation is the separation of humans into socially-constructed racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bath room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home.

Centuries of European colonialism in the Americas , Africa and Asia were often justified by white supremacist attitudes. Some scholars argue that in the US earlier violent and aggressive forms of racism have evolved into a more subtle form of prejudice in the late 20th century. This new form of racism is sometimes referred to as "modern racism" and it is characterized by outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes, displaying subtle prejudiced behaviors such as actions informed by attributing qualities to others based on racial stereotypes, and evaluating the same behavior differently based on the race of the person being evaluated.

This ambivalence may also be visible for example in hiring decisions where job candidates that are otherwise positively evaluated may be unconsciously disfavored by employers in the final decision because of their race. Recent research has shown that individuals who consciously claim to reject racism may still exhibit race-based subconscious biases in their decision-making processes. While such "subconscious racial biases" do not fully fit the definition of racism, their impact can be similar, though typically less pronounced, not being explicit, conscious or deliberate.

In , a proposal to include a racial equality provision in the Covenant of the League of Nations was supported by a majority, but not adopted in the Paris Peace Conference, In , Japan and its allies declared work for the abolition of racial discrimination to be their aim at the Greater East Asia Conference. The statement condemned scientific racism theories that had played a role in the Holocaust.


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It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the Enlightenment and its assumption of equal rights for all. Along with Myrdal's An American Dilemma: Supreme Court desegregation decision in " Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka ". The United Nations use the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , adopted in Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.

In , the European Union explicitly banned racism, along with many other forms of social discrimination, in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union , the legal effect of which, if any, would necessarily be limited to Institutions of the European Union: Racism existed during the 19th century as " scientific racism ", which attempted to provide a racial classification of humanity.

Another early view in scientific racism was the polygenist view , which held that the different races had been separately created. Polygenist Christoph Meiners for example, split mankind into two divisions which he labeled the "beautiful White race" and the "ugly Black race". In Meiners' book, The Outline of History of Mankind , he claimed that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness.

He viewed only the white race as beautiful. He considered ugly races to be inferior, immoral and animal-like. Anders Retzius demonstrated that neither Europeans nor others are one "pure race", but of mixed origins. While discredited , derivations of Blumenbach's taxonomy are still widely used for the classification of the population in the United States. Steensby , while strongly emphasizing that all humans today are of mixed origins, in claimed that the origins of human differences must be traced extraordinarily far back in time, and conjectured that the "purest race" today would be the Australian Aboriginals.

Scientific racism fell strongly out of favor in the early 20th Century, but the origins of fundamental human and societal differences are still researched within academia , in fields such as human genetics including paleogenetics , social anthropology , comparative politics , history of religions , history of ideas , prehistory , history , ethics , and psychiatry. There is widespread rejection of any methodology based on anything similar to Blumenbach's races.

It is more unclear to which extent and when ethnic and national stereotypes are accepted. Although after World War II and the Holocaust , racist ideologies were discredited on ethical, political and scientific grounds, racism and racial discrimination have remained widespread around the world. From time to time when there is a revival of social and political tensions, new works are published which repeat past and discredited racial views such as J R Baker's 'Race'.

Du Bois observed that it is not so much "race" that we think about, but culture: Ultimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as decisively shaping the character and personality of the nation.

Culture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each other, sometimes even to the extent of including nationality or language to the set of definition. Pureness of race tended to be related to rather superficial characteristics that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics.

In the case of Nordicism, the denomination "Germanic" was equivalent to superiority of race. Bolstered by some nationalist and ethnocentric values and achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority evolved to distinguish from other cultures that were considered inferior or impure. This emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream definition of racism: It creates them through a process of social division into categories: This definition explicitly ignores the biological concept of race, still subject to scientific debate.

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In the words of David C. Rowe "A racial concept, although sometimes in the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology and in other fields because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is captured by race. Racial prejudice became subject to international legislation. For instance, the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, , address racial prejudice explicitly next to discrimination for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin Article I.

Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as xenophobia and ethnocentrism , although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an ideology or from scientific racism, which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia. Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict.

In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe itself to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases, ethnicity and nationalism were harnessed in order to rally combatants in wars between great religious empires for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians. Notions of race and racism have often played central roles in ethnic conflicts. Throughout history, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity in particular when "other" is construed to mean "inferior" , the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by moral or ethical considerations.

According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other. Different but Equal , that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 19th century, due to the need for a justification for slavery in the Americas. Historically, racism was a major driving force behind the Transatlantic slave trade. Indigenous peoples have been —and are— often subject to racist attitudes.

Practices and ideologies of racism are condemned by the United Nations in the Declaration of Human Rights. After the Napoleonic Wars , Europe was confronted with the new " nationalities question," leading to reconfigurations of the European map, on which the frontiers between the states had been delineated during the Peace of Westphalia. This led to the French Revolutionary Wars — and then to the conquests of Napoleon , and to the subsequent European-wide debates on the concepts and realities of nations , and in particular of nation-states. Modern nation-states appeared in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of patriotic sentiments for the first time in Spain during the Peninsula War —, known in Spain as the Independence War.

Despite the restoration of the previous order with the Congress of Vienna , the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the Industrial Era , leading in particular to the Revolutions , the Italian unification completed during the Franco-Prussian War , which itself culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles , thus achieving the German unification.

Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire , the " sick man of Europe ", was confronted with endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire , would lead to the creation after World War I of the various nation-states of the Balkans , with "national minorities " in their borders. One of its main influences was the Romantic nationalist movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as Johann Herder — , Johan Fichte — in the Addresses to the German Nation , Friedrich Hegel — , or also, in France, Jules Michelet — It was opposed to liberal nationalism , represented by authors such as Ernest Renan — , who conceived of the nation as a community, which, instead of being based on the Volk ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together "the nation is a daily plebiscite ", or also John Stuart Mill — The Pan-German League Alldeutscher Verband , created in , promoted German imperialism , " racial hygiene " and was opposed to intermarriage with Jews.

Pan-Germanism played a decisive role in the interwar period of the s—s. These currents began to associate the idea of the nation with the biological concept of a " master race " often the " Aryan race " or the " Nordic race " issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflated nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses that posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself.

Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying ethnic cleansing in order to achieve "racial purity" and also to achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state. Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not, however, limited to pan-Germanism. In France, the transition from Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made nationalism a characteristic of far-right movements in France , took place during the Dreyfus Affair at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nationwide crisis affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of Alfred Dreyfus , a French Jewish military officer.

Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners", who threatened the ethnic unity of the French people. Bernard Lewis has cited the Greek philosopher Aristotle who, in his discussion of slavery , stated that while Greeks are free by nature, ' barbarians ' non-Greeks are slaves by nature, in that it is in their nature to be more willing to submit to a despotic government.

Such proto-racism and ethnocentrism must be looked at within context, because a modern understanding of racism based on hereditary inferiority modern racism based on: Puzzo, in his discussion of Aristotle, racism, and the ancient world writes that:. Racism rests on two basic assumptions: Racism, thus defined, is a modern conception, for prior to the XVIth century there was virtually nothing in the life and thought of the West that can be described as racist. To prevent misunderstanding a clear distinction must be made between racism and ethnocentrism The Ancient Hebrews , in referring to all who were not Hebrews as Gentiles , were indulging in ethnocentrism , not in racism.

So it was with the Hellenes who denominated all non-Hellenes—whether the wild Scythians or the Egyptians whom they acknowledged as their mentors in the arts of civilization —Barbarians, the term denoting that which was strange or foreign. There are only humans who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings. They live in thickets and caves, and eat herbs and unprepared grain.

They frequently eat each other. They cannot be considered human beings. Therefore, the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because Negroes have little that is essentially human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated. However, according to Wesleyan University professor Abdelmajid Hannoum, such attitudes were not prevalent until the 18th and 19th centuries.

He argues that some accounts of Arabic texts, such as those of Ibn Khaldun, were mistranslations by French Orientalists projecting racist and colonialist views of the 19th century into their translations of medieval Arabic writings. Lindsay also argues that the concept of an Arab identity itself did not exist until modern times. The Umayyad Caliphate invaded Hispania , with Muslim Berber invaders overthrowing the previous Visigothic rulers and creating Al-Andalus , [] which contributed to the Golden age of Jewish culture , lasting for six centuries.

The legacy Catholic Spaniards then formulated the Cleanliness of blood doctrine. It was during this time in history that the Western concept of aristocratic " blue blood " emerged in a racialized, religious and feudal context, [] so as to stem the upward social mobility of the converted New Christians. It was the Spaniards who gave the world the notion that an aristocrat's blood is not red but blue. The Spanish nobility started taking shape around the ninth century in classic military fashion, occupying land as warriors on horseback. They were to continue the process for more than five hundred years, clawing back sections of the peninsula from its Moorish occupiers, and a nobleman demonstrated his pedigree by holding up his sword arm to display the filigree of blue-blooded veins beneath his pale skin—proof that his birth had not been contaminated by the dark-skinned enemy.

Sangre azul, blue blood, was thus a euphemism for being a white man—Spain's own particular reminder that the refined footsteps of the aristocracy through history carry the rather less refined spoor of racism. Following the expulsion of the Arabic Moors and most of the Sephardic Jews from the Iberian peninsula , the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to convert to Roman Catholicism, becoming " New Christians ", who were sometimes discriminated against by the " Old Christians " in some cities e.

Toledo , despite condemnations by the Church and the State, which both welcomed the new flock. The system and ideology of the limpieza de sangre ostracized false Christian converts from society in order to protect it against treason. In Portugal , the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was only ended through a legal decree issued by the Marquis of Pombal in , almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination.

The limpieza de sangre legislation was common also during the colonization of the Americas , where it led to the racial and feudal separation of peoples and social strata in the colonies. It was however often ignored in practice, as the new colonies needed skilled people. The latter argued that the Indians practiced human sacrifice of innocents, cannibalism , and other such "crimes against nature" were unacceptable and should be suppressed by any means possible including war, [] thus reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and natural law.

It was one of the many controversies concerning racism, slavery, religion, and European morality that would arise in the following centuries and which resulted in the legislation protecting the natives. Augustine Spanish Florida , is the first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in the continental United States. Although antisemitism has a long history, related to Christianity and e.

In the view of the French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault , the first formulation of racism emerged in the Early Modern period as the " discourse of race struggle", a historical and political discourse, which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of sovereignty. Chinese self-identification as a "yellow race" predated such European racial concepts.

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Boulainvilliers, who created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France , conceived of the "race" as being something closer to the sense of a "nation", that is, in his time, the "race" meant the "people". He conceived of France as being divided between various nations—the unified nation-state is an anachronism here—which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the absolute monarchy , which tried to bypass the aristocracy by establishing a direct relationship to the Third Estate. Thus, he developed the theory that the French aristocrats were the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the " Franks ", while according to him, the Third Estate constituted the autochthonous, vanquished Gallo-Romans , who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the right of conquest.

Early modern racism was opposed to nationalism and the nation-state: While 19th-century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, [] leading to the ethnic nationalist discourse that identified the "race" with the " folk ", leading to such movements as pan-Germanism , pan-Turkism , pan-Arabism , and pan-Slavism , medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought to be the consequence of historical conquests and social conflicts. Michel Foucault traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle".

According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: On the other hand, Marxism also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle that provided the real engine of history and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the essentialist notion of "race" into the historical notion of " class struggle ", defined by socially structured positions: In The Will to Knowledge , Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: Sigmund Freud 's psychoanalysis , which opposed the concept of "blood heredity ", prevalent in the 19th century racist discourse.

Authors such as Hannah Arendt , in her book The Origins of Totalitarianism , have said that the racist ideology popular racism which developed at the end of the 19th century helped legitimize the imperialist conquests of foreign territories and the atrocities that sometimes accompanied them such as the Herero and Namaqua Genocide of — or the Armenian Genocide of — Rudyard Kipling 's poem The White Man's Burden is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the European culture over the rest of the world, though it is also thought to be a satirical appraisal of such imperialism.

Racist ideology thus helped legitimize the conquest and incorporation of foreign territories into an empire, which were regarded as a humanitarian obligation partially as a result of these racist beliefs. However, during the 19th century, Western European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the Arab slave trade in Africa, [] as well as in the suppression of the slave trade in West Africa.

Thus, when the Hottentot Venus was displayed in England in the beginning of the 19th century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. Examples of racial theories used include the creation of the Hamitic ethno-linguistic group during the European exploration of Africa. The term Hamite was applied to different populations within North Africa, mainly comprising Ethiopians , Eritreans , Somalis , Berbers , and the ancient Egyptians. Hamites were regarded as Caucasoid peoples who probably originated in either Arabia or Asia on the basis of their cultural, physical and linguistic similarities with the peoples of those areas.

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However, the Hamitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have failed as rulers, which was usually ascribed to interbreeding with Negroes. In the midth century, the German scholar Carl Meinhof — claimed that the Bantu race was formed by a merger of Hamitic and Negro races. In the United States in the early 19th century, the American Colonization Society was established as the primary vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off".

Whitecapping , which started in Indiana in the late 19th century, soon spread throughout all of North America, causing many African laborers to flee from the land they worked on. In the US during the s, racist posters were used during election campaigns. In one of these racist posters see above , a black man is depicted lounging idly in the foreground as one white man ploughs his field and another chops wood.

Negro Estimate of Freedom! Capitol and is inscribed "Freedom and No Work. My proposal is to make the encouragement of Chinese settlements of Africa a part of our national policy, in the belief that the Chinese immigrants would not only maintain their position, but that they would multiply and their descendants supplant the inferior Negro race I should expect that the African seaboard, now sparsely occupied by lazy, palavering savages, might in a few years be tenanted by industrious, order-loving Chinese, living either as a semidetached dependency of China, or else in perfect freedom under their own law.

The Nazi party, which seized power in the German elections and maintained a dictatorship over much of Europe until the End of World War II on the European continent , deemed the Germans to be part of an Aryan " master race " Herrenvolk , who therefore had the right to expand their territory and enslave or kill members of other races deemed inferior. The racial ideology conceived by the Nazis graded humans on a scale of pure Aryan to non-Aryan, with the latter viewed as subhuman. At the top of the scale of pure Aryans were Germans and other Germanic peoples including the Dutch , Scandinavians , and the English as well as other peoples such as some northern Italians and the French who were said to have a suitable admixture of Germanic blood.

The Menace of the Under-man. Between June and January , the Nazis killed an estimated 2. German praise for America's institutional racism was continuous throughout the early s, and Nazi lawyers were advocates of the use of American models. White supremacy was dominant in the U. Bhagat Singh Thind , the Supreme Court ruled that high caste Hindus were not "white persons" and were therefore racially ineligible for naturalized citizenship.

Serious race riots in Durban between Indians and Zulus erupted in Between and , the Apartheid regime took place. This regime based its ideology on the racial separation of whites and non-whites including the unequal rights of non-whites. Several protests and violence occurred during the struggle against Apartheid , the most famous of these include the Sharpeville Massacre in , the Soweto uprising in , the Church Street bombing of and the Cape Town peace march of During the Congo Civil War — , pygmies were hunted down like game animals and eaten.

Both sides in the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. UN human rights activists reported in that rebels had carried out acts of cannibalism. Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of the Mbuti pygmies, has asked the UN Security Council to recognise cannibalism as both a crime against humanity and an act of genocide. The mass demonstrations and riots against African students in Nanjing , China , lasted from December to January Some 70, black African Mauritanians were expelled from Mauritania in the late s.

The Jakarta riots of May targeted many Chinese Indonesians. Resentment against Chinese workers has led to violent confrontations in Africa [] [] [] and Oceania. Peter Bouckaert, Human Rights Watch 's emergencies director, said in an interview that "racist hatred" is the chief motivation behind the violence against Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar.

With the aim of preserving the demographic makeup of the Zionist state, elements within Israeli society have been accused of discriminatory behavior against the Arab population and toward other Jews of a darker complexion. These communities disproportionately occupy laborer positions with the workforce. One form of racism in the United States was enforced racial segregation which existed until the s when it was outlawed in the Civil Rights Act of It has been argued that this separation of races continues to exist de facto today. The causes of segregation vary from lack of access to loans and resources to discrimination in realty.

Scottish philosopher and economist David Hume said, "I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.

In the 19th century, the German philosopher, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world. While opposed to slavery in the U. S, in President Abraham Lincoln stated, "I am not, nor ever have been in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races, that I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people. I as much as any man am in favor of the superior position assigned to the white race".

Austrian philosopher Otto Weininger , claimed: The German conservative, Oswald Spengler , remarked on what he perceived as the culturally degrading influence of Africans in modern Western culture: The modern biological definition of race developed in the 19th century with scientific racist theories.

The term scientific racism refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the midth century, during the New Imperialism period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the Church 's resistance to positivist accounts of history and its support of monogenism , the concept that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with creationist accounts of history.

These racist theories put forth on scientific hypothesis were combined with unilineal theories of social progress , which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the idea of " survival of the fittest ", a term coined by Herbert Spencer in , associated with ideas of competition, which were named social Darwinism in the s.

Charles Darwin himself opposed the idea of rigid racial differences in The Descent of Man in which he argued that humans were all of one species, sharing common descent. He recognised racial differences as varieties of humanity, and emphasised the close similarities between people of all races in mental faculties, tastes, dispositions and habits, while still contrasting the culture of the "lowest savages" with European civilization.

At the end of the 19th century, proponents of scientific racism intertwined themselves with eugenics discourses of " degeneration of the race" and "blood heredity. They found their scientific legitimacy on physical anthropology , anthropometry , craniometry , phrenology , physiognomy , and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices. Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of cultural anthropology Franz Boas , etc. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the s, eventually led to a gene-centered view of evolution in the s. According to the Human Genome Project , the most complete mapping of human DNA to date indicates that there is no clear genetic basis to racial groups.

While some genes are more common in certain populations, there are no genes that exist in all members of one population and no members of any other. The first theory of eugenics was developed in by Francis Galton — , who used the then popular concept of degeneration. He applied statistics to study human differences and the alleged " inheritance of intelligence ", foreshadowing future uses of " intelligence testing " by the anthropometry school.

During the rise of Nazism in Germany , some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the midth century.

However, this project had been abandoned. The race question had become one of the pivots of Nazi ideology and policy. Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation. The Third Reich's racial policies , its eugenics programs and the extermination of Jews in the Holocaust , as well as Romani people in the Porrajmos the Romani Holocaust and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Works such as Arthur de Gobineau 's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races — may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of Boulainvilliers for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality, which changed over time.