(Aspekte des Menschen) (German Edition). Zeit - Postmoderne. Fachbereich: Philosophie / Kulturwissenschaften (uni auditorium) (uni Ökologie der Zeit: Vom Finden der rechten Zeitmasse (Edition Universitas) ( German Edition).
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The debates also underscored the fact that academic discourse among historians does not differ according to geography bur rather according to different theories and methodologies. An openness toward plurality and the mutual acceptance of different approaches to history are the only way to bridge these gaps. Conference at the University of Florida, Gainesville, April , The activities began with a reception on the evening of April 9 and concluded with an excursion to historic St.
Augustine - the oldest continually inhabited settlement in the United States - on Florida's Atlantic coast. The purpose of the conference was to gather historians from Germany and the United States to discuss new research on the decision-making process of Nazi rule within Germany and in the occupied territories of western and eastern Europe. The conference also aimed at creating a setting for senior and junior scholars to discuss how recent discoveries fit into the existing scholarship on National Socialism. The format was similar to previous GHI conferences in that the papers were circulated beforehand and emphasis was placed on discussion.
As a result, the speakers were limited to short presentations of minutes. These were followed by a brief comment. This structure fostered a more conversational and less formal atmosphere that carried over from the first session to the final one. How and by whom were intentions to do something converted into action? What, especially, was the role of Adolf Hitler, who more than anyone else had long before formulated intentions that Germany would finally act on during the war, particularly with respect to the annihilation of the European Jews as well as the conquest of eastern Europe and the Soviet Union?
Furthermore, we need to pose the question: Were Hitler's intentions also the intentions of others? Finally, did certain processes develop over time or were they actively pursued? In his presentation "Concerning the Extra-Legal Decisions of the German State in the Nazi Era," Friedlander urged participants to think about two sets of decisions in the process that led to mass killings and the Holocaust. The first are basic decisions about whether or not to act Should we do it? The second are implementation decisions How do we do it?
Can we get away with it? Gellately then spoke about how "War Revolutionizes the Revolution: The need to suppress enemies in wartime and the opportunity to do so were both in play. In his comments Alan E. Steinweis University of Nebraska at Lincoln underscored what he saw in both papers as the central role of Adolf Hitler, the importance of the institutional framework for the implementation of decisions, and the importance of as a watershed year in this process.
The second session was moderated by Peter Hayes Northwestern University. He divided his presentation into three main areas: Wirsching stressed that the localities enjoyed a large degree of independence and that anti-Jewish policies should be seen as a dialectical process developing between different levels and centers of power within the Nazi state.
For the implementation of Nazi policy and for understanding the issue of motivation, the local level was crucial and yet has been inadequately researched to date. In his talk, he asserted that foreign policy is intelligible only in connection with domestic policy, that Hitler was involved in practically every decision, and that Ribbentrop was a good assistant but did not always see eye-to-eye with his boss. In his comments, Gerhard L. Weinberg University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill applauded Wirsching's work on localities and also emphasized that it was a two-way street: He used the example of the various directives to boycott Jewish businesses: The impetus came from above but was implemented and elaborated on at the local level.
Brechtken highlighted important steps in the history of the term "final solution" since the nineteenth century. He discussed the different schemes for a solution of the "Jewish problem," from forced emigration to Palestine to the Madagascar plan. Brechtken showed how the failure of all "extraterritorial" and "territorial solutions" led to genocide. He also illustrated how the different approaches taken by the Security Service of the SS Sicherheitsdienst or SD , which looked for "practical" answers, and the Foreign Office, which took a more ideological stance, contributed to a radicalization of Nazi anti-Jewish policies.
Fall to Summer Longerich urged the participants to avoid one-dimensional explanations that either describe the "final solution" as a series of single decisions in reaction to certain "necessities" on the ground or simply stress the preponderance of ideology. Rather, the genesis of the "final solution" should be studied in the context of a number of long-term developments that led to a radicalization of Nazi "Jewish policy" and for the purposes it served within the National Socialist system of rule. Distinguishing four stages of escalation of Nazi policy toward the Jews, Longerich saw a decisive moment in the transition from general persecution of the Jews to a basic decision on their destruction Vernichtung in the fall of In his commentary Peter Hayes submitted that both papers emphasized the processes that led to decisions, Brechtken from a more institutional viewpoint that described the active planning within the Foreign Office and the SD, Longerich from a structural perspective that stressed the tendency of policy makers to react to certain conditions.
The fourth session, which opened the second day of the conference, was moderated by Jay Baird Miami University of Ohio. Plundering and the Pursuit of Profit During the Holocaust. Although anti-Semitism must certainly be seen as the ultimate motive for the Holocaust, there are ancillary reasons that need to be explored.
Also, greed played a different role for different groups of perpetrators, which Petropoulos categorized as policy makers the leading Nazis , midlevel managers, and functionaries. He proposed a dynamic model of the roles of "center" and "periphery. But he also highlighted differences by exploring various economic and personal factors leading toward vast differences in the implementation of the same policy. Peter Hayes, in his comment, urged the participants to distinguish more clearly between motives and impulses.
Whereas economic arguments might have served as a rationalization for the murder of so many Jews, it certainly was not necessary to kill them in order to achieve specific economic and social goals. Clear definitions are necessary, he argued, in order to distinguish between what motivated perpetrators on different levels of the Nazi system and what were mere side effects of different goals. Friedlander was concerned about a recent, perhaps subconscious tendency to rationalize decisions that led to the Holocaust. It is important but insufficient to explore economic necessities.
Whereas the center provided an ideological framework, general guidelines, and sometimes detailed instructions, the issue of Volksdeutsche resettlement also served as a rationalization within the polycratic structure of the regime. At the same time, midlevel actions were crucial in shaping the outcome of Nazi policy, while the destructive potential of the initiatives taken by the Volksdeutsche themselves was substantial.
Birn underscored the importance of local initiative and of non-German personnel for the implementation of occupation policies in eastern Europe. Although Estonia was unique with respect to the level of involvement of the indigenous population, Birn showed how local conditions shaped the outcome of the decisions made by the German occupiers. In his commentary Alan E. Steinweis reinforced those points by underscoring how different ideological predispositions, the circumstances created by the war, the number of people targeted for removal, and the social and economic conditions in different countries shaped occupation policies.
The two afternoon sessions focused on the roles of Hitler, Himmler, and the Nazi elite in the decisions that led to the Holocaust. He characterized Himmler as a "manager," not as an "architect," of the Holocaust. According to Pohl, Himmler's main interest was the resettlement of ethnic Germans, which necessarily entailed the deportation of large groups of the indigenous population and their ultimate annihilation.
Thus, it is no accident that settlement decisions coincided with the implementation of genocidal policies. Pohl observed that Hitler's role has again returned to the center of scholarly discussion. The re-Hitlerization of Nazi policy, however, has its limits. Furthermore, the decision to kill the Jews was not opposed to the war effort, as earlier studies have argued, rather, it represented a broad consensus within the Nazi elite, and it was seen as a precondition for winning the war.
Studying the crucial period between spring and fall , when the anti-Jewish policies of the Third Reich entered a new phase, Safrian argued that the SS depended on the support of the army and the civil administration for carrying out its policies. Frequently, the Wehrmacht took active steps that led to the murder of civilians, including women and children.
The concluding session was chaired by Baird. When Did He Decide? Therefore, radical and violent anti-Semitism must be seen as a necessary but insufficient explanation for the Holocaust. Thus, the question should not be whether Nazi policies made either ideological or economic sense because they were meant to achieve both. Gerlach agreed with many other participants that a decisive turning point came in September when Nazi planners began to realize that the war would have to be extended into This led to increased mortality first among Soviet POWs but also entailed an acceleration of murderous policies toward the Jews.
The extent and speed of these anti-Jewish policies, however, was largely contingent on local or regional conditions. Thus, in the fall of Nazi policy toward the Jews was transformed from a utopian resettlement and annihilation program to a short-term program of mass murder. Until the winter of , Gerlach insisted, there was no fundamental decision by Hitler to kill all European Jews.
This came only during December , after the United States had entered the war. In his paper Browning focused on the timing of Hitler's decision to effect a "final solution. Browning rejected the claims of Gerlach and others who have argued for December as the date for Hitler's decision. Discussing the evidence in great detail, Browning argued that a fundamental decision was made earlier, in October In his comments Weinberg raised a number of issues discussed in the two papers that became the focus of the subsequent discussion: The question of dating Hitler's decision and the interpretation of key documents, such as Hitler's conversations with foreign diplomats, Himmler's office diary, and Eichmann's testimony in Jerusalem.
Friedlander underscored the point that economic factors provide reasons but not an ultimate motive. Longerich argued that any attempt to explain the Holocaust by just a single fateful decision would be futile and would downplay its complexity. He reminded the audience that there are still many open questions that need to be explored. Robert Gerald Livingston, senior visiting fellow at the Institute since January , is working on a book that will deal with the politics on both sides of the German-American relationship from Cast in a narrative form and aimed at a general as well as an academic readership, Livingston's survey will be constructed around a dozen or so episodes that characterized the countries' relationship and determined the course of events during that period.
It will focus on political leaders and explore their personal interactions as well as the politics in each country that drew them together and occasionally divided them. Kennedy; for the later s, the Dollar-DM pressures and the American effort to draw Germany into a Vietnam commitment will be treated, concentrating on Erhard and Lyndon B. One of the most profound changes of the twentieth century was West Germany's successful democratization and Westernization after Only four years after the end of World War II, the former enemy started to become one of the closest allies of the United States and an important member of the Western community of values westliche Wertegemeinschaft.
Today, Germany's deep political and ideological roots in the West are an essential feature of the Federal Republic's identity. However, in contrast to Germany's economic, military, political, and cultural incorporation into the West, the ideological paradigm shift that accompanied these developments has remained largely unexplained.
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This research project aims at exploring the process of the ideological Westernization of Germany through a comparison of German and American political cultures and an analysis of their interaction during the development of West German democracy from the end of World War II through the Adenauer era. The results should provide insights into the emergence of a German democratic political culture from conflicting authoritarian and liberal traditions and a clearer understanding of the West as an ideological entity during the Cold War. In West Germany's political self-conception, the apparent break with authoritarian and antidemocratic political and social traditions after and and the sudden appreciation of a liberal democratic order are largely taken for granted.
The existence of long-term authoritarian ideological continuities as important elements of West Germany's political culture is generally ignored or denied. During the last twenty years German historiography has recognized numerous and complex economic, social, personal, and political continuities as well as breaks in twentieth-century German history. It is safe to assume that this developmental pattern also is true for West Germany's political culture, that while the departure from National Socialist ideology and politics may have been profound there was no ideological "zero hour" Stunde Null.
The difficulty lies in how to distinguish between elements of continuity and innovation in the development of a German democratic Western political culture, how to even define Westernization, and how to measure its development and success. Whereas the United States cannot be held up as an absolute yardstick for the measurement of Germany's democratic evolution, the history of German-American interactions and perceptions and a comparison between the two political cultures provide material for an assessment of German Westernization.
Distinguished by its strong democratic ideological continuities, the United States provides an excellent backdrop against which the characteristics of a more heterogeneous German political culture stand out in relief. Even more compelling of course is America's dominant role in Germany's democratization. At no time was the debate about Germany and the contact between the American and German systems as intense as during World War II and the postwar occupation period. The content and form of these discourses on Germany, and activities and observations during the occupation, clearly reveal American conceptions of the Western belief system.
A more distinct representation of a Western political culture emerges out of the obvious self-referentiality of the American encounter with Germany. Taken by themselves, German debates and plans during this period appear far less congruous. However, seen from an American point of view the characteristics that emerge define these discourses as distinctly German. What emerges in the German political discourse is the idea of the West as a pre-existing political and cultural entity in which Germany had to retake its rightful place.
The resolution of the manifold German catastrophe was to be found in a political order based on a return to the Occident, its Christian and democratic values. The renewal did not so much call for revolutionary change but for the resurrection of old but trusted concepts of state, administrative tradition, political discourse, and civic virtue. From a German perspective Westernization was not innovation or modernization but rather the recollection of past German values, because Germany's well-established political and cultural heritage could be construed as a genuine element of the West.
It is an open question how far these authoritarian traditions stunted the growth of a liberal democracy. At the very least the conservative republic that was founded on these underlying tenets looked far different from what American democratization policies were trying to achieve in Germany. In fact, the Eisenhower administration was concerned about the authoritarian outlook and statist principles of the chancellor's democracy Kanzlerdemokratie. Adenauer not only reestablished an autocratic style of government but also reinstated a traditionalistic and undemocratic bureaucracy that even included a large number of former Nazis as important functionaries of the new republic.
However, the Westernization of Germany cannot be interpreted solely from an American perspective because the realization of vaguely defined Western ideals can take very different forms. A new German democracy could well be far removed from the American system and still embrace democratic and Western values.
And as domestic strife in the s showed, the United States was not without its own antidemocratic excesses and imperfections. What helped both countries to overcome their differences and to closely align these two rather distinct political cultures was the Cold War. Once the conflict with the Soviet Union started and the immediate postwar period came to an end, ideological differences and concerns about the democratic character of the West German state rapidly declined in importance.
The common threat of the Soviet bloc called for ideological unity and obscured inherent dissimilarities, contradictions, and variances in the Western belief system. The realities of the Cold War made an inclusive approach to an indispensable German military power not only strategically important but also necessary as a containment of the German situation. Although the United States was not wholly unconcerned about the direction German domestic developments took, there nevertheless was an anxiously optimistic attitude fed by the recognition of actual improvements in West Germany's democratic sensibilities and the exigencies of the Cold War.
Ironically, the Germans perceived America's policy of double containment as a friendly embrace. It reinforced their conviction that Germany's future was in the West and thus furthered the acceptance of a Western democratic system of government. The Institute's Cold War project continues to make excellent progress. Nearly all of the articles that make up the two-volume work have been reviewed by our editorial team and revised by the authors.
The next phase has therefore now begun in earnest. After copy editing, the articles are being translated into either English or German; the translations also will be copy edited here at the Institute. An interministerial committee chaired by the German Federal Ministry of Trade and Commerce recently reviewed our project and decided to extend its full funding through the end of We plan to finish our work on the English edition of the book by April of that year and submit the German edition to the press shortly thereafter. The Summer Program has been on hold for the last three years, pending new funding after a generous grant from the Volkswagen Foundation ended.
The first part of the new program will consist of a summer course in Koblenz Bundesarchiv and Landesarchiv that will introduce graduate students to German handwriting styles of various periods. It also will introduce them to the organization of archives in Germany. The second part of the Summer Program will consist of a tour of various German archives church, city, media, trade, and university. The exact itinerary has not yet been determined, but the grant will include round-trip air fare to Germany, ground transportation, and hotel accommodations double occupancy.
Details of the Summer Program will be published on our Web page and in the fall Bulletin. The application deadline is December 31, We are pleased to announce that the GHI now offers a small number of "observierende Praktika" to German history or political science students. The internships will last one to four months, with a possibility for extension. The purpose of the program is to allow German students to observe the various activities of the GHI and to assist the director, the fellows, and the librarians with various projects.
They are responsible for obtaining their own visas through the Bonn office of the Council on International Educational Exchange CIEE and for covering the costs of visas and insurance. They also are obliged to demonstrate that they have enough assets at their disposal for the duration of their stay. The GHI celebrated its tenth anniversary in Over the last ten years, the Institute has sponsored dozens of international conferences on a wide variety of historical topics and has published a number of essay collections and historical monographs.
The lecture series sponsored by the Institute brings prominent German and American historians to Washington and continues to attract a substantial audience. To offer a comprehensive overview of the many activities the GHI has sponsored between and , we have prepared a ten-year report that will highlight the most important aspects of our work.
Two research fellows, Thomas Goebel and Edmund Spevack, compiled information on the international conferences sponsored by the GHI and on the scholars who participated in them; on our various lectures series Annual Lecture, Alois Mertes Memorial Lecture, Spring and Fall Lecture Series ; on the historians, social scientists, and other staff members who have worked here over the last ten years; on the fellowships we have awarded; on projects we have supported; on the publications published by the Institute; and on the development of the library.
The final version of the report will be published this summer. A copy will be sent to everyone on our mailing list. Alan Milward, European University, Florence. Volker Berghahn, Brown University. Dirk Hoerder, University of Bremen. Goldberg, "Creating a Medieval Kingdom: Noble, University of Virginia.
Margit Mayer, Technical University of Berlin. Kazal, "Becoming 'Old Stock': Michael Katz, University of Pennsylvania. Knud Krakau, Free University of Berlin. Anette Neff, "Die Amerikaner auf dem Dorf Christof Dipper, Technical University of Darmstadt. Framing the German Citizenship Law of Roger Chickering, Georgetown University. David Painter, Georgetown University. The GHI now has its own Web site at www. It currently features general information about the Institute, a directory of its members, a list of the Institute's publications, a calendar of upcoming events, information about the scholarships offered by the GHI, and the most recent edition of the Bulletin.
We are particularly pleased to offer an online version of our Library Catalog that allows author, title, and subject searches. For the immediate future we plan to post full text versions of our Reference Guides see the Publications List at the end of this issue. Please have a look and feel free to make suggestions on how we can improve our site.
The Library Catalog now is accessible over the Internet. The address is www. Although we are not a lending library, the site will provide interested scholars with the opportunity to browse our book and periodical listings to see what is available to them for on-site use. Moreover, the library's holdings have grown to more than 20, volumes. Below are two examples of our more important recent acquisitions:. Munich, , meant to be used in conjunction with the Deutsches Biographisches Archiv German Biographical Archive , microfiche Munich, This index should be of great interest to students of German history because it contains an alphabetical listing of biographical information on about , subjects.
In addition, it provides data on locations of articles and references to the sources on the person cited. The Library owns a microfiche printer-reader, available for use by our visitors in the reading room. Tolzmann, Don Heinrich, ed. A Documentary History , 5 vols.
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This five-volume collection is a documentation of the German-American experience during the two world wars. It deals with anti-German hysteria, the internment of German-Americans, and the persecution of German-Americans. Also, we would like to remind our readers that the library has subscriptions to over scholarly journals and to the following German periodicals: We will shortly begin receiving the Berliner Zeitung. Current issues are kept for a period of two to four weeks. While at the Institute he organized several conferences, workshops, and other events; he also led the Summer Program, presented papers at various conferences, and pursued his research project on "The Image of the Criminal Among the Anglo-American, French, and German Police in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries.
Iris Golumbeck , Librarian, has left the Institute to accept a position as the sales manager for Germany with Ex Libris, an Israeli company based in Hamburg that develops and sells library automation systems. Under her direction, the Library's holdings were reorganized into a new computerized catalog. She also oversaw the design and installation of a new compact shelving system for the collection.
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Raimund Lammersdorf , Research Fellow, born in and raised in Cologne. He received his Ph. Theodore Roosevelt und die transatlantischen Beziehungen der Vereinigten Staaten, He has written a number of articles on American foreign policy at the start of the twentieth century and is currently working on his second book or habilitation , a study of the Westernization of West Germany's political culture after for a full description, see New Research Topics in this issue.
Marciel has a year background in scholarly and commercial publishing; she also is a certified German-English translator through the American Translators' Association, where she is a member. Marciel recently completed a translation of the book, The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Ecotoxicology and Environmental Chemistry Christof Mauch , Deputy Director, born in Sindelfingen, Brenner, , ; Kurt Marti ed. Studien zu Kurt Marti ; Geheimdienstkrieg gegen Deutschland ed. Heideking, ; USA und deutscher Widerstand ed.
Current research interests include American intelligence, the "Hessians" in American and German history and historiography, and nineteenth-century environmentalist movements in America and Germany. Janine Micunek , Copy Editor, left the Institute after more than seven years of service to pursue other interests. During her tenure she copy edited and revamped the GHI's in-house publications. She also worked on numerous projects, including reference guides, the Transatlantische Historische Studien series, and the Summer Program. On February 21, , Dr. He was accompanied by a group of government officials and a delegation of journalists.
Following his visit to the new Center, Dr. The discussion, led by the director of the GHI, centered on the German university system and proved to be both lively and contentious. Two questions were particularly controversial: The first centered on whether, and to what extent, the current German institutions and mentalities are prepared for and capable of fundamental reform; the second dealt with whether or not reforms could be instituted without additional government funding.
A number of participants, including the director of the GHI, also pointed out a grave contradiction between theory and practice in the German university system's support and furtherance of education and training. Although announcements and public statements repeatedly demand that young German scholars widen their horizons by spending a longer period of time abroad, those scholars who take that step often encounter disadvantages in practice. Younger scholars in particular are confronted repeatedly with the fact that it is extremely difficult to re-enter the German university system because the positions available when they left the country were filled in the meantime by those who elected to stay.
In the Friends altered the format of their annual symposium.
Held on November 14, the meeting highlighted new research being carried out by junior scholars. We were interested to hear in detail about some of the projects being pursued by the research fellows of the GHI itself, and at the same time we were keen to present the joint winners of the Friends of the GHI Dissertation Prize. All those who attended were highly satisfied with the less hurried program of only four presentations during the daylong meeting, instead of six or eight, because this allowed for expansive discussions, and everyone went away with the feeling that they had gained a solid grasp of the theses proposed by these outstanding scholars and colleagues.
It was enthusiastically agreed at the Friends of the GHI board meeting the next day that the new format should be repeated in Alexander von Humboldt in the American Public Sphere, Daum revealed the intricate processes involved in how Humboldt and his achievements were appropriated and functionalized by succeeding generations in the United States. He argued that these generations used Humboldt's heritage to invent their own cultural traditions and strengthen particular national, ethnic, and intellectual identities. Humboldt himself had visited the United States only once, in , stopping briefly on the return trip from his five-year journey through Central and South America.
In the following years, however, he maintained a vigorous correspondence with scientists in the United States. Moreover, there was a constant flow of Americans visiting Humboldt in Europe. Whereas the historiography has hitherto explained Humboldt's appeal to Americans in terms of his scientific achievements, his interest in the scientific exploration of America, and his sensitivity toward both the political and economic problems accompanying the growth of the United States, Daum offered a new interpretation: Instead of following biographical traditions, he combined the approaches of cultural and social history in order to explain the striking facts that the peak of Humboldt's veneration in the United States was reached in the two decades following his death and that his popularity radiated widely into American society, far beyond the realm of scientific institutions.
Humboldt the hero, he argued, was "invented" by a peculiar mixture of groups based mainly on immigrant milieus but not limited to them. Citing a number of regional examples, Daum delineated in detail how, from the s on, German-American groups, other immigrant groups, and even the native-born population celebrated Humboldt as a cultural hero. This veneration of Humboldt culminated in spectacular festivities, the erection of monuments, and a vast memorializing literature.
According to Daum, in a time of rapid social change, the new ethnic groups in particular were in need of a cultural hero to create a common cultural consciousness and project their self-definitions onto an undeniably positive figure. Consequently, Humboldt became an embodiment of various and sometimes conflicting cultural values - such as cosmopolitanism, the German idea of education, the free-thinking ideology of German radicals, and even creationist thinking.
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Daum differentiated among a whole set of Humboldt narratives that could be used for the varying purposes of different social groups. Humboldt was venerated by urban German-American, freemasons, and some Irish immigrants; he became so Americanized that he was honored on such occasions as the centennial of the signing of the Declaration of Independence.
With this interpretation, Daum made a strong case for studying science and the work of scientists not only as endemic, internal phenomena of high culture but also as elements of popular culture during the nineteenth century. His paper was based on his manuscript in progress titled "Hysterical Men: War, Memory and German Mental Medicine, ," discussed the response of German psychiatrists and neurologists to the "epidemic" of male hysteria during and shortly after World War I.
Covering the period from the late s through the war, the November Revolution and into the Weimar Republic, it sketched the story of the hysteria diagnosis, the doctors who diagnosed it, and the soldier-patients whom they examined and treated. Lerner explored the context for the acceptance of hysteria, once considered an exclusively female affliction, as the preferred diagnosis for Germany's tens of thousands of "shell shocked" men and then surveyed the therapeutic and administrative dimensions of the war-neurosis problem.
Lerner put forward four distinctly intertwined arguments. First, he showed that male hysteria became an acceptable diagnosis when used on sufferers of industrial trauma in the late nineteenth century. By attributing the condition to the patient's psyche rather than to the direct effects of an accident, the hysteria diagnosis offered an attractive alternative to "traumatic neurosis," the other available diagnostic choice.
That is, explaining the symptoms as manifestations of hysteria made trauma patients ineligible for pensions and mandated their return to work. In this context, a powerful - and uniquely German - opposition between hysteria and work was forged that, he argued, displaced the traditional "femininity" of the affliction, partially replacing its gender dichotomy with one based on class.
German doctors conceived of the war neuroses in precisely these terms, viewing neurotic soldiers within the framework of peacetime trauma cases and seeing the war - and its psychological consequences - as an industrial accident writ large. Second, Lerner claimed that the demands of war accelerated the turn away from an approach to mental health based on the individual patient to a collectivistic paradigm.
Forced to handle unprecedented numbers of patients with limited resources, wartime doctors borrowed from industrial models - they developed "assembly line" techniques for making diagnoses, giving treatments, and reaching decisions on pension and discharge matters.
Speed and efficiency became the primary medical values as methods of treatment and administration were centralized and rationalized, and a comprehensive approach to the psychic health of the whole nation was adopted.
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Furthermore, therapeutic goals were redefined around national utility, and as particularly labor shortages reached crisis proportions, psychiatric and neurological treatments concentrated on efficiently channeling neurotic patients into the nation's war economy. As such, Lerner opposes the facile continuities often drawn between shell-shock treatment and the euthanasia program carried out by psychiatrists in the Nazi period, stressing instead the connections between rationalized psychiatric care and other features of Weimar Germany's economic and cultural history.
Third, Lerner argued that by choosing particular treatments and diagnoses, psychiatrists and neurologists gained opportunities to further their own ideas about acceptable soldierly conduct. Their self-appointed task as caretakers of the nation's mental and nervous health cast them in the roles of judge, teacher, and disciplinarian and enabled many to exercise a decisive influence over the fates of thousands of soldiers. Lerner showed that although they were at first baffled by the war neuroses, by certain doctors could point to incredible treatment successes.
Reversing the long-standing "therapeutic crisis" in German psychiatry, these doctors supervised the creation of a set of institutions and facilities over which they had complete control. Treating war neurotics thus gave a generation of university-based doctors the opportunity to cast their authority and professional expertise over issues that lay in a gray area among the legal, military, and medical spheres; mental health practitioners continued to exercise this authority, acting as state agents against an increasingly hostile population in pension claims filed during and after the war.
Doctors, according to Lerner, used their newly achieved control and authority over the patient to promote medical views of German manhood, which were based on duty, obedience, and, most of all, economic productivity. In his final thesis Lerner examined the relationship between traumatic wartime events and post-traumatic conditions. Through a series of case histories, he treated the struggle between psychiatrists and patients over the reality and significance of traumatic war experiences as a contest between the competing narratives of war and its traumatizing impact.
In denying the pathogenic power of the "traumatic" war event, Germany's psychiatrists ultimately rejected any causal connection between war service and mental illness, contributing to a broader Weimar-era narrative that celebrated the combat environment and undermined the victim status of its veterans.
Lerner showed that for most psychiatrists, the war neuroses essentially had nothing to do with the war, meaning that they did not consider the tens of thousands of nervously ill casualties to be victims of the war in any real sense. Denying that war was damaging to the individual's mind and nerves, Lerner concluded, meant that psychiatrists implicitly denied the traumatizing impact of war as a whole, constructing the war experience as a positive influence on the minds of individuals and the lives of nations.
Chaney's presentation was titled "Visions and Revisions of Nature: Precisely during this time, as the Federal Republic became more densely populated, highly urbanized, industrialized, and polluted, concern about preserving nature Naturschutz came to be an important, yet subordinate aspect of managing and protecting the human environment Umweltschutz. Systematische Medien-philosophie Book 10 editions published in in German and held by WorldCat member libraries worldwide.
Grundlegung einer neuen Disziplin im Zeitalter des Internet by Mike Sandbothe Book 8 editions published between and in German and held by WorldCat member libraries worldwide. Die Renaissance des Pragmatismus: Klassiker der modernen Zeitphilosophie Book 12 editions published between and in German and held by 95 WorldCat member libraries worldwide.
Die Verzeitlichung der Zeit: Grundtendenzen der modernen Zeitdebatte in Philosophie und Wissenschaft by Mike Sandbothe Book 5 editions published in in German and held by 86 WorldCat member libraries worldwide. Die Filmgespenster der Postmoderne Book 3 editions published in in German and held by 46 WorldCat member libraries worldwide. Die Wiederentdeckung der Zeit: Reflexionen - Analysen - Konzepte by Bamberger Philosophischer Meisterkurs Book 5 editions published in in German and held by 38 WorldCat member libraries worldwide.
His work helped effect global transformations in the way philosophy thinks about its work and role midst contemporary culture. He was influential across a diversity of disciplines in perturbing our inherited self-understandings of the place of intellectuals in culture and the roles of art, literature, science, and religion in contemporary liberal democratic society. This collection of essays, by an international and interdisciplinary group of eminent scholars and thinkers in their own right, inc.