A small amount of salt is important for good health as it helps to maintain the correct volume adults should aim to consume no more than one teaspoon (5 grams) of salt a day (or 2, mg of sodium a day) in order to prevent chronic disease. . 13 11 Back to top. Cut down on salt intro tile. Many of us are eating almost.
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- What is Kobo Super Points?
- Salt won't give you a heart attack, says scientist
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- The science of salt and electrolytes (are we consuming enough?)
A yen for salt drives the elephants of Kenya to walk into the pitch-black caves of Mount Elgon to lick sodium sulphate salt crystals off the walls.
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Salt is so fundamental to life that a deficiency of it acts as a natural contraceptive in all sorts of animals, including us. Clinical studies show that low-salt diets can increase the risk of erectile dysfunction, fatigue and the age at which females become fertile. The average Korean eats over 4g of sodium a day. They feast on tteokguk, a broth-based soup full of salt, and they eat kimchi — cabbage preserved in salt being made, above — with every meal.
Salt helps the body withstand accidents and other traumas. Besides excessive bleeding, we experience a loss of other fluids in states of shock — for example, from burns. As the injured areas soak up fluids to speed healing, the body needs its salt reserves to keep the blood circulating and fend off vascular collapse.
The orthodox medical view on salt is based on a straightforward hypothesis, which says eating higher levels of salt leads to higher levels of blood pressure — end of story. But as with so many simplistic health theories, this is based on a fundamental misunderstanding, compounded by faulty science. The faulty hypothesis goes like this: The excess salt causes the body to hold on to that water to dilute the saltiness of the blood. That water retention increases blood volume, which leads to higher blood pressure, and thus to heart disease, strokes and other serious conditions.
Evidence in medical literature suggests approximately 80 per cent of people with normal blood pressure that is, a reading of below over 80 do not suffer any signs of raised blood pressure — none at all — when they increase their salt intake. Among those with prehypertension, or higher blood pressure, three quarters are not sensitive to salt.
Salt won't give you a heart attack, says scientist
The dangerous myth that salt raises blood pressure began more than years ago, with French scientists Ambard and Beauchard. They based their findings on studies of just six patients. Successive researchers misinterpreted and misused their data, building on a theory that earned media attention without any solid foundation in fact. He proposed to prove this with experiments on rodents.
However, as even Dr Dahl was obliged to concede, normal rats are not sensitive to salt. It does nothing to their blood pressure. Dahl created salt-sensitive rats in a lab and then used them to prove his hypothesis that salt affected blood pressure. Dahl popularised the notion that salt is nothing but a flavouring we add to food.
He cited medical studies that, he claimed, were proof humans could survive on a quarter of the recommended levels. But a closer look at the papers he promoted is alarming: One patient placed on a restricted salt regime died soon afterwards, and another sustained circulatory collapse, due to inadequate supplies of oxygen and nutrients to the tissues — a classic symptom of salt deprivation. It killed them, which Dahl proclaimed as proof that baby food could be lethal for human infants, too. Low salt intake has several side-effects that magnify our risk of heart disease, such as increased heart rate, compromised kidney function, underactive thyroid glands, heightened insulin levels — a risk factor for diabetes — as well as heightened cholesterol.
Of course, human babies are much larger than rats, and the salt-sensitive rats had been genetically engineered to suffer from hypertension. But based partly on this research, the Committee on Nutrition at the American Academy of Paediatrics concluded that infants were consuming too much sodium, and manufacturers began to lower the salt content in all kinds of food. The link between high blood pressure and salt was established in the public mind, on the most spurious of pretexts.
But this misinformation did not take hold worldwide. The average Korean, for instance, eats over 4g of sodium a day. They feast on tteokguk, a broth-based soup full of salt, and bulgogi, grilled meat marinated in a sea of sodium-packed soy sauce. They eat kimchi — cabbage preserved in salt — with every meal. South Korea also has one of the lowest death rates from coronaries in the world, along with Japan and France.
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What do people from these three countries have in common? They all eat a very high-salt diet. The Mediterranean diet, too, widely recommended as heart-healthy, is not exactly low in salt — think of all those anchovies and sardines. Even where blood pressure does increase, the benefits of a higher salt intake — a lower heart rate, reduced insulin levels, more balanced adrenal hormones and better kidney function — are likely to outweigh any risks.
All through lack of salt. This white crystal that has been unfairly demonised for many decades is diverting blame from the real culprit of these illnesses. High blood pressure, cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease can all be caused by the real health hazard, excessive consumption of sugar. We all need salt to live. But you could go the rest of your life, and probably extend its span, if you never ingested another gram of added sugar.
This harmful effect occurs in nearly everyone who restricts salt intake. The damage done by an average increase of four heartbeats a minute is compounded by other salt-related stresses inflicted on our bodies by modern life. In many species, low-salt diets and depletion of body sodium stores stimulate salt appetite. Low salt intake blunts the response of the peripheral and central taste neurons to sapidity enforcing sodium. Thus rats ingest large amounts of salty food they otherwise would avoid [ 14 ]. Restriction of maternal salt intake during gestation has major effects on taste function and anatomy of the offspring.
In addition to an increase in serum renin and aldosterone levels it results in a decrease in circulating insulin-like growth factor 1 Table 1 that regulates amiloride-sensitive channel function in toad bladder epithelium [ 15 ]. Such alterations in physiological systems also have impact on amiloride-sensitive sodium channels in developing taste receptor cells.
In rat offspring that are maintained on low-sodium chow throughout life, the chorda tympani nerve that innervates taste buds on the anterior tongue has reduced neurophysiological responses to sodium and altered morphology of its terminal field in the nucleus of the solitary tract, in contrast to the greater superficial petrosal nerve that innervates taste buds on the palate [ 16 ].
These differences led to the suggestion that a differential regulation of amiloride-sensitive sodium channels could be involved. In birds, like in rodents, sodium depletion increases plasma angiotensin and mineralocorticoid levels. High endogenous levels of these hormones may act in synergy to induce salt appetite [ 18 ]. Scientists have described a huge number of traits in mammalian and avian species that evolved to attract mates and ensure reproduction [ 19 ].
Brain mechanisms that are involved in mate preference are largely unknown. Of interest, sexual attraction is associated with the dopaminergic reward system, and salt is implicated in the regulation of the dopaminergic system. Dopamine is important for motor functions and general arousal. It may have some relationship to mechanisms of ejaculation and neuroendocrine consequences of sexual activity or other processes associated with copulation [ 20 ] Table 1.
Several hypothalamic areas such as the medial preoptic area and the paraventricular nucleus are the source of pathways for reflexive move. Dopamine acting at the medial preoptic area level may regulate penile erection [ 21 ]. Erectile dysfunction has been a matter of concern through the ages [ 22 ], with beliefs and remedies including salt Figure 3. Dopamine of renal origin has natriuretic and diuretic effects.
Sodium restriction led to an activation of antinatriuretic and antidiuretic systems. However, the renal ability to synthesize dopamine was increased, probably, as a counter-regulatory mechanism. Normally, a saline load increases renal dopamine production and natriuresis [ 24 ]. Steroid receptors such as progestin receptors can be activated after treatment with neurotransmitters like dopamine. A review by Auger [ 25 ] showed that some somasensory cues normally experienced by females—those associated with sexual intercourse—can activate progestin receptors to influence both neuronal response and oestrus behaviour.
Altered sexual function has long been known as a potential problem in the management of hypertension by salt restriction as illustrated by the Trial of Antihypertensive Interventions and Management TAIM [ 26 ]. Adding a low-sodium diet to either chlorthalidone or atenolol treatment did not improve blood pressure control.
Symptoms and signs include impaired concentration, attention or memory abilities and reduced libido and orthostatic hypotension Table 1. Therapy consists in prescribing increased dietary salt or fludrocortisone to prevent abnormal reflex initiation. Of related interest is a recent evaluation [ 29 ] of the effect of reduced salt intake on learning and memory capabilities in salt-sensitive SS Dahl rats—an animal model of salt-dependent hypertension.
Salt restriction produced a significant decrement in selective cognitive functions, with marked alteration of social recognition memory and a radical impairment in the social transmission of food preference. Such findings put a cautionary note into the use of severe salt restriction. Although sodium intake is fundamental for their survival, pre-agricultural societies differ in the access they have to salt and in their dedication to it. In many hunter—gatherer societies, food taboos dictate the diet of female individuals.
These taboos are often to be respected throughout the most critical reproductive years of their life. Most of the food-related beliefs concern meat although salt, corn and fat are sometimes prohibited for ritual reasons.
- Rituals and salt as a signifier.
- The science of salt and electrolytes (are we consuming enough?).
- Male Sexual Dysfunction and Chronic Kidney Disease;
Australian aboriginal societies restrict food for pregnant and lactating women [ 30 ]. Aranda women cannot eat lizards until they have a child. Maternal malnutrition influences birth spacing and increases the risk of premature death abortion or low birth weight in neonates. Ethnographic data on hunter—gatherer fertility indicate a low fertility rate in response to selective or incident malnutrition.
A study related to its determinants in the Kung population [ 31 ] proposed an interaction of nutritional factors affecting ovulation, conception and parturition in aboriginal women of this stem. Other studies [ 32 ] have confirmed the role of severe deficiency states, including sodium and iodine deficiency, in low birth weight, impaired physical growth, mental retardation and poor school performance. Besides sodium, iodine needs [ 33 ] of women of childbearing age, pregnant and lactating women are scarcely covered by restrictive diets.
Their demography [ 34 ] has been studied extensively.
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It was assumed that their reproductive performance would be a reasonable approximation of what is ignored, including salt in their diet. Of note, fertility is low, with an average of only one live birth every 4—6 years despite the continuous exposure to the risk of pregnancy. This is possibly in relation with lifelong low salt intake and corresponding hormonal adjustments including elevated serum renin and aldosterone levels. Besides low salt intake in certain unacculturated populations, salt wasting deserves comment because it may contribute to a better understanding of the role of sodium deficiency in reduced fertility.
The salt wasting syndrome [ 36 ] is a disorder of heterogeneous origin including congenital or acquired abnormalities of aldosterone synthesis or function. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to hydroxylase deficiency is a salt wasting syndrome starting early in life. It is characterized by hyponatraemia and hyperkalaemia. In females it often leads to impairment of fertility, depending on the phenotype. Salt appetite correlated with symptoms of salt wasting, namely plasma renin activity, plasma potassium and urinary sodium.
Plasma aldosterone did not correlate with sodium appetite nor did ACTH, which may raise salt appetite in animals. Sub-fertility is frequent in patients affected by this disease, as also discussed in another recent review [ 38 ] Table 1. The possibility that oestrogens increase salt appetite in female animals may have important implications for women during pregnancy.
Their increased sodium appetite probably reflects adaptative mechanisms and needs. Pregnancy implies a challenge to sodium homeostasis, leading to a natural increase in the search for more salt. Lactating rats markedly increased their intake of sodium chloride after having been deprived of salt for 4 days, whereas virgin female rats did not [ 39 ]. The observed increase in salt intake is also a response to enhanced metabolic demands of the growing foetus during pregnancy and of the newborn during lactation.
Of interest, there also is a sexual dimorphism in salt appetite. After gonadectomy, however, male and female rats drank comparable amounts of saline. This sexually dimorphic phenomenon [ 41 ] could be governed by the sex hormones testosterone and oestrogen. In pregnant women, in the presence of normal salt intake, plasma renin activity and angiotensin II and aldosterone levels increase gradually by the eighth week of normal pregnancy until parturition Table 1. In contrast, in the condition of pre-eclampsia there is no systemic activation of the renin—angiotensin system but instead local activation in the decidua and increased vascular sensitivity to angiotensin II, together with pathologic changes in the activity of vascular endothelial growth factor and its receptors, antagonists and reduced placental growth factor [ 42 ].
There appears to be a reasonable degree of agreement that salt intake should not be reduced during pregnancy. In pregnant rats a 0. Some 50 years ago, Robinson [ 44 ] investigated the impact of a high- versus low-salt diet in the early period of pregnancy in a large cohort of women. He found a lower incidence of oedema, toxaemia and bleeding during pregnancy and of perinatal death in those with high salt intake. They observed an increase in vascular reactivity that adds to the concern about adverse effects of sodium restriction.
Therefore, any reduction of salt consumption during pregnancy should be carefully monitored, especially with respect to the potential risk of aggravating pregnancy-induced hypertension. In pregnant women there is thus no evidence of benefit from reduced salt intake. A recent Cochrane review by Duley et al. The authors concluded that salt consumption should remain a matter of personal preference.
This recommendation is also important for guaranteeing a sufficient iodine intake together with discretionary salt provided that it is duly iodized.
The science of salt and electrolytes (are we consuming enough?)
Sodium appears to be of major importance in early development throughout the animal kingdom, from butterflies to mammals, and in man as well. Early sodium deprivation can provoke salt appetite in adulthood. Chevalier [ 47 ] reviewed the evidence for the necessity of a balanced sodium intake and the detrimental effect of its deficiency or its restriction in early postnatal development. He focused on renal sodium conservation at this time period because it is decisive for subsequent maturation.
Regardless of sodium supplementation, human neonates show a negative sodium balance for the first 4 days of life, and then shift to a positive sodium balance, with a marked increase in plasma renin activity and aldosterone levels during the first 3 weeks of life. Another study [ 48 ] identified a robust inverse correlation between the lowest serum concentration during the neonatal period of low birth weight children and reported dietary sodium intake in adolescence.
This would indicate that very low circulating sodium concentrations in neonates induce a permanent increase in salt appetite later in life Table 1. The importance of low birth weight in the aetiology of coronary artery disease or type 2 diabetes was reviewed in relation to an inadequate foetal nutrient supply by Byrne et al.
These authors attempted to better understand cellular and molecular mechanisms that might explain the association between low birth weight and adult disease risks. Insulin has a central role in foetal growth in relation to maternal malnutrition. Insulin resistance induced by low sodium intake might have an adverse influence on development.
Muscle cramps need water not salt Some people believe that salt has to be replaced during hot weather or strenuous exercise to avoid muscle cramps. Sodium and potassium in the body Potassium is important for the nerves, muscles and heart to work properly. Sodium in food Many foods — wholegrains, meat and dairy products — naturally contain small amounts of sodium, while highly processed foods tend to contain large amounts. A jam sandwich has only 30 per cent less salt than a vegemite sandwich, because most of the salt comes from the bread.
Sea salt, onion, celery or garlic salts are not low-sodium substitutes. A bowl of cornflakes has about the same amount of salt as a small packet of plain chips. Some sweet biscuits contain as much or more salt than savoury biscuits. Ricotta, cottage, mozzarella and Swiss cheeses are lower in salt than most other cheeses. Reducing salt in our diet To reduce the amount of salt in your diet, slowly reduce your intake over several weeks , then completely avoid adding salt at the table, and when cooking or preparing meals.
Choose reduced salt bread and breakfast cereals — bread is a major source of sodium in the diet. Buy fresh vegetables or select lower sodium canned varieties. Avoid high-salt, processed foods High-salt foods that should be eaten sparingly include: Iodine Our bodies need iodine to make sure our thyroid gland and the hormones that regulate our metabolism work normally. Limit bought food Food eaten at restaurants, cafes and from takeaway outlets can be much higher in salt than food prepared at home. Read food labels The amount of salt in foods can vary considerably between brands.
Ditch the salt shaker Try to break the habit of automatically salting your meals at the table. Think you can taste it? All salt is the same Don't be fooled by trendy claims — all salt is the same. How much is too much? It's in the sauce Most simmer sauces, gravies and condiments are stacked with salt to enhance their flavour.
Don't listen to those cravings Salt has a craving effect on our bodies — the more we eat, the more we want. Time for brunch or lunch? Cramps don't need salt Contrary to what we might believe, if your muscles are cramping they need water not salt. Salt , Heart Foundation. The state of salt: Send us your feedback. Rate this website Your comments Questions Your details. Excellent Good Average Fair Poor. Next Submit Now Cancel. Please note that we cannot answer personal medical queries. If you are looking for health or medical advice we recommend that you: Enter your comments below optional.
Did you find what you were looking for? Your feedback has been successfully sent. Healthy eating basics Food types Vitamins and supplements Health conditions and food Food science and technology Planning shopping and cooking Food safety and storage Dieting and diets Nutritional needs throughout life Healthy eating basics Balancing energy in and energy out A kilojoule is a unit of measure of energy, in the same way that kilometres measure distance Children's diet - fruit and vegetables If you eat and enjoy fruit and vegetables every day, your child may eventually follow your lead Dairy and dairy alternatives Dairy products and dairy alternatives are packed with calcium, protein and lots of other essential nutrients.
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Meat and poultry Meat and poultry are a great source of protein and lots of other nutrients your body needs. Nutrition — Summer fruit and vegetables Salads are a great way for you achieve your 5 serves of vegies every day Nuts and seeds Nuts are a healthy food and a good source of protein and healthy fats Organic food Organic foods are farmed in a more environmentally sustainable way than conventional foods Simple ways to cut down on fat Cutting down on fat is not as hard as you think. Soft drinks, juice and sweet drinks - children Encourage children to drink and enjoy water. Soft drinks, juice and sweet drinks — limit intake Consumption of drinks containing added sugar is associated with weight gain, reduced bone strength and tooth erosion and decay Vitamins and supplements 10 tips for getting enough vitamin D A balanced UV approach is required to ensure some sun exposure for vitamin D while minimising the risk of skin cancer Antioxidants Antioxidants scavenge free radicals from the body's cells, and prevent or reduce the damage caused by oxidation Calcium If you don't have enough calcium in your diet, your bones will eventually become weak and brittle Folate for pregnant women Even women who aren't planning to have a baby should increase their folate intake in case of unplanned pregnancy Iodine Good sources of iodine include fortified bread and any type of seafood, including seaweed Iron Iron is important for transporting oxygen in the blood Vitamin and mineral supplements Taking vitamin supplements is no substitute for a healthy diet Vitamin B The eight B-group vitamins are essential for various functions within the body Vitamin D A balanced approach to sunlight exposure will help you get enough vitamin D while protecting against skin cancer Vitamin D - maintaining levels in winter Vitamin D is important for healthy bones, muscles and the nervous system Vitamins - common misconceptions There is no evidence that any one vitamin can slow ageing, restore sex drive or cure infertility Health conditions and food Arthritis and diet No special diet or 'miracle food' can cure arthritis, but some conditions may be helped by avoiding or including certain foods Asthma and food allergies It is important to identify any foods or food chemicals that may trigger your asthma, but this must be done under strict medical supervision Cancer and food Diet can influence your risk of developing some cancers, but there is no evidence that specific foods can cause or cure cancer Cholesterol - healthy eating tips Replacing foods that contain saturated fats with foods that contain polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats will help to lower your cholesterol Coeliac disease and gluten sensitivity Coeliac disease is an immune disease caused by gluten Diabetes and healthy eating Healthy eating for people with diabetes is no different than for everyone else Food allergy and intolerance Food allergy is an immune response, while food intolerance is a chemical reaction Food poisoning - prevention You can minimise the risk of food poisoning by taking simple precautions Have you had an allergic reaction to packaged food?
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Cooking healthy alternatives Chef Andrew Blake shows people how to cook healthy fish and chips, spring rolls and pancakes Cooking tips for busy people If you lack the time or motivation to cook, try these tips Food shopping - a family's healthy market shop Food shopping - fresh produce choices at local markets Reporter Flip Shelton takes us on a tour and shows us what fresh produce is available at a local market Food to have sometimes Junk food should be kept to a minimum.
It usually contains a lot of fat, salt or sugar Food variety and a healthy diet If you eat a variety of good food, your diet will provide you with adequate nutrition Healthy budget - tucker talk tips You can buy more food if you spend most of your money on basic healthy foods like bread, cereals, fruit and vegies Healthy cooking tips Eating healthy food doesn't mean giving up your favourite foods and switching to eating only salads Lunch - avoid the fast food fix Nutritionist Shane Bilsborough shows us how much energy it takes to burn off a fast food lunch.
Lunch boxes - healthy shopping ideas Victorian State Public Health Nutritionist Veronica Graham takes us shopping for the right foods to include in your childs lunchbox Lunch boxes - how to make them healthy Victorian State Public Health Nutritionist Veronica Graham shares three healthy and delicious lunchbox examples for the kids and provides some great food preparation tips to save you time throughout Reading food labels - tucker talk tips Labels on packaged food can give you useful information about the nutrition, ingredients, storage and weight of the food.
Shopping at fresh food markets Victorian State Nutritionist, Veronica Graham talks about the benefits of shopping at fresh produce markets Tips to keep our snacks on track Most of us are prone to the odd snack or two. Food safety and storage Be savvy with food this summer How to keep food fresh and safe in warmer weather Cockroaches Cockroaches prefer to live in kitchens and other food preparation areas, so they can feed off food spills Don't let food poisoning ruin your summer How to avoid food poisoning this summer Fishing - eat your catch with care People who fish in the Lower Yarra and Maribyrnong rivers need to be careful about eating their catch because of the risk of chemical exposure Food poisoning - listeria Listeria infection is uncommon but very dangerous for the elderly, people whose immune systems are not working properly and pregnant women and their unborn babies Food safety - eggs To enjoy eggs safely - buy clean, keep cool and cook well Food safety for summer celebrations In the hot weather there is a higher risk of food poisoning but if you follow some simple rules when you prepare, handle and store food it will significantly reduce your risk of getting sick Food safety outdoors Food poisoning is a real risk when taking food outside the home, especially in warmer weather Food safety when cooking Most foods should be cooked to at least 75?
C to minimise the risk of food poisoning Food safety when eating out If you have any doubt about the safety of food when you're out, don't eat it Food safety when shopping When you shop, choose, pack and transport food carefully Handwashing - why it's important Washing your hands with soap and warm water can help prevent the spread of infectious diseases Mushroom poisoning Contrary to popular belief, there is no home test that can distinguish between edible and poisonous varieties of wild fungi or mushrooms Dieting and diets 10 tips on how to eat more calcium Reduce your intake of coffee, alcohol and soft drinks Body image and diets Some people diet because they have a poor body image, not because they want to be a healthy weight Food for sport - tucker talk tips Carbohydrate is the most important nutrient for athletes Gluten-free diet Gluten sensitivity can be managed with a gluten-free diet Sporting performance and food Good nutrition and a healthy diet are essential to improving your sports performance Vegetarian and vegan eating A well-planned vegetarian or vegan diet can meet nutritional needs during all stages of life Vegetarian diets and children Children can eat a vegetarian diet and stay healthy as long as their extra nutritional needs are met Weight loss and fad diets With a balanced eating plan, it's what you leave in that makes all the difference