Information and Its Role in Nature (The Frontiers Collection)

Information and Its Role in Nature presents an in-depth interdisciplinary discussion of the concept of information and its role in the The Frontiers Collection.
Table of contents

If so, what is the role of information in classical and quantum physics? In what ways does information-processing in the human brain bring about self-consciousness? Accessible to graduate students and professionals from all scientific disciplines, this stimulating book will help to shed light on many controversial issues at the heart of modern science.

University of Buenos Aires; professor of physics at that university; professor at the University of Denver, Colorado; director of the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska, then professor until Springer Shop Bolero Ozon. Information and Its Role in Nature. The book is aimed at urban planners and architects but is included here because both problem and solution often disclose specific physical attributes of three dimensional space that influence preference and restoration.

The goal is to produce criteria for landscape conservation and development that provides, saves, and frames beautiful views as the viewer moves through a larger scaled landscape such as a public park or along a highway. It is included here as it is based on psychophysical criteria about preferred views scenic beauty for viewshed management of large scale landscapes. And it employs measurable landscape characteristics Daniel and Boster, Many principles are based in mathematics and the long held belief that numerical relationships manifest the harmonic structure of the universe Ching, and, by extension, will be preferred and in some way restorative.

Design principles are the vocabulary for creating an object, a setting, or a series of settings where form and space are ordered to bring unity, balance, and a spatial or temporal hierarchy to the whole.


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These characteristics play a key role in aesthetic response. Visual engagement and interpretation is founded on the arrangement of lines, forms, and their sensory attributes like color and texture in terms of proportion, scale, and ordering principles such as symmetry and rhythm. The body of knowledge summarized in design principles continues to be used worldwide by design professionals and artists. Many formal design principles like the golden mean and the location of a horizon line are foundational for the digital field of visual aesthetics e.

It is not a surprise that many of the design principles for preferred arrangement of scene elements are coherent with what is predicted to be desirable by psychophysical models. It has been recognized by researchers that some of the traditional aesthetic domains may be derived from more basic functions of survival and success, such that environmental aesthetics is not a special case of aesthetics but a reflection of its broad and pervasive utility e.

A comparison of predictions from all theories revealed shared structure-content properties of greatest relevance to preference and restoration responses Table 1. Each structure-content property was named with an encompassing descriptor for a set of topically related theory predictions. Only shared properties supported by the predictions of at least 3 of the 10 eligible theories were included for further study. Although theories share predictions i. Identification of shared structure-content properties predicted to be important in preference and restoration responses across by key theories from environmental psychology and environmental aesthetics down.

Naturalness is defined as any type of nature content—the presence of biota, land, water, or sky. Design principles, rooted in observation and analysis of the natural world, recommend imitation of nature's rules of form and changeability to create a satisfying outcome.

Complexity is defined as information richness of a scene deriving from diversity in its physical structure and physical content. The elements of complexity emerge from variety in line types, forms, textures, or color DP. Seven theories predict complexity to be related to preference. Biophilia subsumes both structure and content into the term resource variation which refers to the ecological capacity of the environment to provide food, protection, and space for activities important to success BT: Complexity is predicted as preferred, particularly at moderate levels SRT: Ulrich, , because it heightens the potential for exploration EA: Berlyne, ; EIPT: Structural Coherence is the degree of unity and visual order often achieved through patterning or linkage of scene components e.

Six theories consider structural coherence of importance to preference or restoration. It is founded on symmetries, repeated elements, homogeneous textures, content or color patterns that bring balance and unity, and the presence of a focal point in a scene DP; EA: Berlyne, ; SRT: Ulrich, ; EIPT: Kaplan and Kaplan, Massing Structural coherence also comes from the balance of repeated elements along an axis symmetry and massing of like elements to create a line of visual interest that activates a scene DP.

Structural Form is present as gestalt, the scene with structural form appears as an organized whole that is more than the sum of its parts SRT: Kaplan, This happens with habitat types, like savanna ST: Seven theories predict structural form as important to preference and restoration. It is foundational to the aesthetic response called beauty EA: Structural form involves organizing principles like style e. Depth Cues help us understand the proportional relation and size of objects in a scene.

Seven theories predict preference for scenes that support depth perception. A scene with sufficient depth to evaluate the presence of resources and danger is predicted as more preferred PRT: Appleton, ; ST: Orians and Heerwagen, , as are landscapes dominated by the experience of moderate depth SRT: A key outcome of successful information gathering is the ability to go deeper into a scene, implying that depth perception is critical to preference development EIPT: Depth cues reveal proportional relationships between size and distance.

Object size can also be inferred by proportional sizing or human scaling —using the relative size of known objects or one's own body as the metric for size and distance of what lays beyond DP. This approach to proportional sizing is enhanced when the arrangement of lines and forms produce a perspective view as happens overtly in the streets of most urban settings EA-Urban. At the landscape scale, proportional sizing is based on the relative size of objects in the fore, mid, and background of a scene S-LA: Openness is defined as a position along a continuum from physical or visual spaciousness to full enclosure.

Six theories predict that degree of openness to be important in preference and restoration responses. Scenes with sufficient openness to evaluate the presence of resources and danger are predicted as preferred PRT: Orians and Heerwagen, Openness is a key consideration of designers and urban planners who measure it in terms of volumetric proportion, often using human scale to dimension outdoor spaces that serve well-being e.

Openness has also been defined as nature content arranged with a spatial structure that brings a sense of being surrounded by nature or a sense of nature's boundlessness EA: This definition bears directly on the goal of landscape designers charged with creating a sense of the natural world within a dense urban area.

Information Gathering Support includes features of the environment that support the ability to learn more about a setting, often by moving deeper into it. Six theories predict that such support in relevant to preference and restoration responses. Examples include the presence of a physical vantage point to see what is beyond PRT: Orians and Heerwagen, , a focal point SRT: Ulrich, , a guiding line to directs visual attention EA: Information gathering is supported by the application of design principles DP such the presence of perspective, organizational symmetry of nature—like paired trees along the edge of something, and the configuration of complexity with an organizational spatial hierarchy—like a canopy, understory, and groundcover of vegetation.

Access is about having sufficient and readily understood information that is useful for navigation through an environment. It is a purpose-driven associate of the structure-content property called information gathering support. Seven theories make predictions about features of access that are relevant to preference and restoration responses.

Features include having a safe place from which to plan a route PRT: Orians and Heerwagen, , and having a type of ground surface suitable for navigation SRT: Lynch, while an obscured view with limited visual access can lead to unpleasant surprises EIPT: Path-space relationships and circulation design commonly apply an array of design principles with the goal of maintaining perceptual clarity while providing interest and beauty DL: Safety is based the presence of environmental form and features that offer protection or not , especially while gathering information.

Nine theories make predictions about features of safety relevant to preference or restoration responses. In terms of environmental structure, safety is typically attributed to places that provide a sense of boundary, access to refuge, or an escape route along with observation point s to see what is beyond PRT: Appleton, ; EA-Urban: Features of such places include attributes that bring legibility EIPT: Kaplan, and the absence of threat SRT: Ulrich, ; Ulrich, ART: In urban settings, a balance between perceived safety and the degree of naturalness can influence legal regulation EA: Schroeder and Anderson, The ongoing challenge is to provide safety in balance with positive aesthetic qualities at all landscape scales e.

Fathi and Masnavi, Vigilance with safety-aesthetics considerations during design and construction of the built environment, is a hallmark of human settlements DL: Hill, , for example, the formulas for depth and height of stairs inside or out. Engagement is based on the presence of something physical that holds the attention.

For some this includes the concept of imageability which happens when specific physical elements and their arrangement capture attention, evoke feelings, making landscapes distinguishable, and memorable. Seven theories predict preference or restoration from scenes that offer engagement. Engagement can arise in the presence of an attention-getter SRT: Ulrich, or from content or structural form that creates mystery or ignites the imagination EA: Godlovitch, ; Brady, Engagement influences preference especially through ephemera, often the result of weather changes ART: Design principles collectively aim for aesthetic engagement, regardless of other goals such as function or safety DP: Because the engagement attribute is so rich in meaning, we divide it into two categories based on the predictability of physical form that elicits the engagement: Features of four theories overtly predict the importance of personal meaning to preference and restoration response.

This shared property, Highly Meaningful not shown on Table 1 , did not move forward to the next phase of work because its measurement is far less relatable to specific physical structure and content features of the environment and is too subjective for direct measurement. Additional information would have to be gathered from subjects for interpretation, such as place-based contributions to preference and restoration Wilkie and Stavridou, The following attribute list articulates concrete predictions about which specific physical structures and content of a landscape are most relevant to preference and restoration.

Attribute definition is the final critical step in operationalizing theory predictions.

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We identified 62 physical attributes likely to influence preference and restoration. Each of these fulfilled the four requisite criteria: Identity of physical structure attributes that manifest a key aspect of at least one structure-content property. Identity of physical content attributes that manifest a key aspect of at least one structure-content property. Identity of physical landscape attributes that manifest a key aspect of at least one structure-content property. The attributes fell into three design categories—structure attributes that focus on spatial configuration, content attributes that address the identity of non-landscape attributes, and landscape attributes that represent the natural and manmade content of a landscape; they are measured in terms of their coverage area in a scene.

For better organization, attributes in each category are subdivided based on dominant commonalities of form or function where this exists. The narrative that follows includes the definition, a metric, and the rationale for including each attribute. Figures provide a graphical version of definitions for complex spatial attributes. Design logic is the basis of support for each member of this group. Where available, empirical, and design research is mentioned. The first eight attributes offer metrics for essential aspects of whole scene spatial structure. Horizon Line Position 1 , where earth meets sky seen or inferred position , is foundational for deciphering one's position and size relative to other objects in view.

Horizon line position also contributes to the visual balance in a scene. Visualized definitions—character states of attributes with complex spatial definitions, part 1. Attribute ID numbers given in parenthesis. Descriptions of numbered character states for attributes A—F are given in the section called Structure Attributes. Skyline Position 2 , the position of the habitat-sky interface, helps the viewer spatially interpret other structural features. Perspective Type 3 is based on location of a scene's vanishing point s and is estimated with visual trajectory lines converging at the vanishing point.

The vanishing point s is a located in response to the sculptural form of a scene and the information it provides about seeing or moving beyond obstacles. Perspective theory comes from the fact, first articulated in the early Renaissance that apparent size of an object decreases with increasing distance from the eye. Perspective types differ in focal point number and position s along the horizon line.

Information and Its Role in Nature (The Frontiers Collection)

In Figure 1C , 0, can't tell; 1, No vanishing point e. Note that a deflected perspective condition 5 was first shown to be preferred by Kaplan et al. Design principles say that a perspective view offers scene information based on location and size of objects relative to one another, and a vanishing point at the horizon gives information about scene depth Lebreton et al. Scenography Type 4 is a gestalt variable that describes the proximity of a viewer to the landscape beyond in terms of its sculptural form and scene depth.

Its character states represent a change from more to a less expansive view. The key to measuring this variable is to consider the physical experience of scene form rather than its content per se. Figure 1D illustrates one example—the change in the spatial structure of one's view while approaching a distant woodland and gradually arriving: Building Distribution 5 signifies the configuration of building or building clusters as they influence a viewer's visual and physical access to what is beyond.

Stamps reported that the impression of enclosure is related to the percent of a scene covered by surfaces that block vision and movement.

Information and Its Role in Nature - Juan G. Roederer - Google Книги

The access porosity speaks to Alexander Pattern 53 about the importance of gateway experience wherein visual or perceived boundaries are crossed at access points. Interestingly, the passage point itself helps maintain the perceived integrity of the boundary. Canyon Form 6 is scored when the landform natural or built produces the enclosure effect of a canyon; No-Yes.

This structural form has been a valuable resource owing to protection from temperature extremes through solar shielding and at nighttime conservation of heat Levermore and Cheung, Water Expanse 7 is based on physical or visual access across a water body; physical access is defined as the ability to cross the water by foot.

In Figure 1F , 1, crossable linear waterway e. Nature and urban scenes holding water bodies were more preferred and restorative than those without White et al. Habitat Type 8 can be measured in either or both of two ways depending on the image set. Habitat Type 8A is the natural ecological landscape type revealed at least somewhere in the scene. Each type is dominated by characteristic forms that allow identity at a glance: Habitat Type in the built environment 8B emerges from design or management of natural elements.

Emulation is founded on the structural form of natural habitat types. It is most often seen in gardens, parks, and greened portions of the built environment Types are: Trunk Position of Very Nearby Trees 9 is based on evaluation of trees that are close enough to produce a visceral sense of proximity and are distinctly spatially separated from non-nearby trees. This attribute is addressed in Alexander Pattern which describes how nearby trees produce desired spatial structures that support well-being.

Trunk position is scored relative to trunk intersection or not at the top and bottom edges of the scene. In cases where Scenography attribute is rated as condition 5, 6, or 7, trunk position of only the nearest tree is scored. Visualized definitions—character states of attributes with complex spatial definitions, part 2. Descriptions of numbered character states for attributes A—E are given in the section called Structure Attributes.

Framing 10 A framing object is very near to the viewer, it partially obscures what is beyond by having boundaries that extend beyond the image frame. Because framing acts to engage one's focus to what is beyond, it is routinely used by designers and artists to guide attention. Framing objects support information gathering and offer depth cues by serving as a foreground object for scaling Schirpke et al. Framing Tree Count 11 is the number of sides of a frame with trees as framing objects. Here, 0, 0; 1, 1; 2, 2; 3, 3; 4, 4. As tree count of framing trees goes up, there should be an increased sense of safety and visual linkage which brings a sense of continuity with what is beyond.

Viewer in Shade 12 happens when the vantage point is sheltered in shade which contrasts sharply to a bright scene beyond. The contrast brings greater visual emphasis to what lies beyond; No-Yes. People Proximity 13 relates the position of people in a scene relative to the viewer's position. The human body functions as a scalar for depth perception designers call this human scaling.

Here, 0, no people, 1, people near, 2, people far, 3, people near and far. Ability to move through the environment is essential for survival and well-being. The next five attributes concern transit corridors. Built Surfaces for Movement 14 is defined by the type of the designated circulation system found in the scene, with type based on physical configuration.

Alexander Patterns describe benefits of well-designed circulation networks 52 and nodes In Figure 2C , 0, no circulation system; 1, single path; 2, network of paths; 3, path s with node s , the node being a useful space, not simply an enlarged intersection; 4, free movement over broad space and can see its boundaries e. The character states of this variable describe in the ability of lines to direct and orient. Accessibility and provision of a view was also very important to preference in Scandinavian forests Gundersen and Frivold, This policy also explains your rights about how the information we hold on you is used.

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